Electromagnetic field levels in the working environment in radio and TV stations

Electromagnetic field sources used for communication always have been subject of serious interest. There are many publications concerning exposure and risk assessment of the working in such environment. Results of epidemiological study performed in Bulgaria in the 1990's show exceeding of the maximal permissible values especially in radio stations for the personnel in 24 h working shift [Israel et al. (1992). Study of the electromagnetic in its influence on personnel working in radio and TV stations, Report, National Centre of Hygiene, Medical Ecology and Nutrition; Israel and Tomov (2001). Epidemiological study of the effects of radiofrequency radiation on operators in radio, TV and relay stations, Proceeding of the Eastern European Regional Meeting and Workshop “Measurements and Criteria for Standard Harmonization in the field of EMF Exposure” and WHO EMF Standards Harmonization Meeting, Varna, Bulgaria, 28 April—3 May, 2001, pp.145–153]. In the last years the situation is strongly influenced by the development of the technology which leads to changes in equipment in radio and TV stations, using lower power, facilitate the working regime. The paper presents data of exposure assessment of different professional groups in selected radio and TV stations. Assessment is being performed on basis of EMF parameters values and energetic load calculations according to the national legislation. Data are compared with the results of previous investigation to evaluate the new situation in this branch. Exposure levels are much lower than those in the previous study, and lower compared to the exposure limits, as well [Israel et al. (1992). Study of the electromagnetic in its influence on personnel working in radio and TV stations, Report, National Centre of Hygiene, Medical Ecology and Nutrition; Israel and Tomov (2001). Epidemiological study of the effects of radiofrequency radiation on operators in radio, TV and relay stations, Proceeding of the Eastern European Regional Meeting and␣Workshop “Measurements and Criteria for Standard Harmonization in the field of EMF Exposure” and WHO EMF Standards Harmonization Meeting, Varna, Bulgaria, 28 April—3 May, 2001, pp.145–153].     

Alteration of brain electrical activity by electromagnetic field

To better understand the affect of different levels of EMF on one’s brain activity, the Hodgkin–Huxley model has been used to describe the generation of an active potential in the nerve cell membrane. The theoretical calculations have shown that by the simultaneous affect of both passing an electrical potential and external very low frequency AC, one’s excitation pulses may be suppressed beginning with a certain level of external current. The level of this current depends on the frequency. It is postulated that to eliminate this suppression, the brain increases its normal level relatively to the lower limit. It is also postulated that the brain “tunes up” in the presence of external AC, by increasing the amplitude of its own excitation signals so that suppression does not occur. It is possible that this “tuning” process lasts some time after removing the external EMF as the brain adapts. This has been observed experimentally.     

The EMF-induced changes in aqua medium’s properties depend on background ionizing radiation, illumination and temperature

The effects of extremely low-frequency electromagnetic field (ELF EMF) and ELF-modulated millimeter waves (MMW) on physicochemical properties of physiological solution (PS) at different environmental medium were studied. The existence of frequency “windows” at 4 Hz and 8 Hz frequencies of ELF EMF and ELF-modulated MMW which have different effects on heat fusion period (HFP), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) formation and oxygen (O₂) content of water solution and different dependency on temperature, background radiation (BGR) and illumination was shown. The obtained data allow us to suggest that cell bathing medium serving as a target through which the biological effects of ELF EMF and ELF-modulated MMW on cells are realized is extra sensitive to environmental factors. Therefore, the variability of experimental data on EMF biological effects, obtained in different laboratories can be explained by different environmental conditions of experiments, which very often are not considered adequately.     

Mobile communications and health of population: the risk assessment, social and ethical problems

Today world population lives in a new electromagnetic environment, characterized with (i) around the clock enforcement of chronic exposure of all age and gender groups to a wide range of modulated electromagnetic fields (EMF) from base stations; (ii) daily, repeated from early childhood throughout entire life exposure to EMF RF mobile phone the brain and vestibular receptor apparatus and auditory analyzers, located directly “under the EMF beam” in the inner ear. On the other hand, the world science and epidemiology is missing well-planned and executed research results of prolonged exposure of EMF RF on the brain. International recommendations and domestic guidelines do not include changing conditions of RF EMF on the population: the brain has become a critical organ, and the children entered the risk group. The population continues to actively use the mobile phone. In this situation the problem of assessing the risk of mobile communications has become a social and ethical.     

Needs of communications with general public about the potential risk of electromagnetic fields and methods for achieving this goal

In the recent years concerns whether exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF) from base station antennae can cause adverse health effects are grown. Great attention is paid on risk of EMF exposure to people living in a close proximity of base stations. In this issue, a point of interest is the personnel mounting, adjusting and maintaining base stations. Their working tasks require stay in high EMF levels’ conditions. There are only few studies concerning this specific occupational group. The results from our previous investigation (Zaryabova and Israel 2006) show that in␣many cases on performing some specific tasks operators are overexposed according to our national legislation, and ICNIRP guidelines. Here, we present an extended study covering more base stations and more precise scenario for performed tasks and working positions. Results of exposure assessment are presented. They include energetic load calculations on the basis of Bulgarian national legislation, and the corresponding SAR values. Data are used to determine permissible time duration for each particular work operation and served as a base for limiting the exposure and proposal for protective measures for the personnel.     

Criticism of the philosophy for development of standards for non-ionizing radiation

The new recommendations of WHO and EC for legislation in Europe and other countries concerning non-ionizing radiation (NIR) health and safety include exposure limits that are very debatable. ICNIRP Guidelines propose exposure limits for electromagnetic fields in the frequency range up to 300 GHz based on short-term exposures and on thermal effects. The new EC proposal for optical and laser safety legislation includes classification of sources of radiation—both lasers and other optical sources, but not requirements for the methodology of classification. On the other hand, many new requirements have been set by the WHO publication “Model Legislation for EMF Protection” concerning the responsibilities in the field of EMF health and safety. Many specialists in the field of developing exposure limits have positions very far away from the proposed of the ICNIRP Guidelines philosophy. The results are different approaches in developing standards and exposure limits, and differences more than 100 times in maximal permissible levels. We, the Bulgarian Program Committee on NIR, try to organize working groups and discuss different philosophy for developing exposure limits for more than 10 years. This paper exposes our position in this area.     

EMF risk for operators mounting,adjusting and maintaining base stations

In the recent years concerns whether exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF) from base station antennae can cause adverse health effects are grown. Great attention is paid on risk of EMF exposure to people living in a close proximity of base stations. In this issue, a point of interest is the personnel mounting, adjusting and maintaining base stations. Their working tasks require stay in high EMF levels’ conditions. There are only few studies concerning this specific occupational group. The results from our previous investigation (COST 281—Graz, 2006) show that in many cases on performing some specific tasks operators are overexposed according to our national legislation, and ICNIRP guidelines. Here, we present an extended study covering more base stations and more precise scenario for performed tasks and working positions. Results of exposure assessment are presented. They include energetic load calculations on the basis of Bulgarian national legislation, and the corresponding SAR values. Data are used to determine permissible time duration for each particular work operation and served as a base for limiting the exposure and proposal for protective measures for the personnel.     

Field Validation of a Conservation Network on the Eastern Shore of Maryland,USA, Using Breeding Birds as Bio-Indicators

Maryland’s Green Infrastructure (GI) is a network of large, intact natural areas (hubs), interconnected by linear swaths of riparian or upland vegetation (corridors). The GI serves significant ecological functions and provides the bulk of the state’s natural support system. This study examined whether the GI as mapped does, in fact, identify Maryland’s most ecologically valuable forested lands, using forest interior dwelling birds (hereafter called “forest birds”) as bio-indicators. We conducted bird point counts within forest both inside and outside of hubs on Maryland’s Eastern Shore. We also collected a wide variety of habitat data. We found that both the condition of a forest and its surrounding landscape influenced the bird communities. On average, forest bird richness was significantly higher within hubs; furthermore, almost all sites with at least five forest bird species present were in hubs. Forest bird richness and abundance were highest in undisturbed, mature broadleaf forest with wetlands and streams nearby. We detected a significant relationship between forest bird richness and the ecological score of a finer-scale landscape assessment, focused on “cells” of about 0.1 ha in size. This field study also validated the Rapid Field Assessment (RFA) protocol developed in 2001 to assess, on the ground, the relative condition of individual sites or properties within the GI. Forest bird richness and abundance were positively correlated with the RFA community scores. Our results underscore the importance of maintaining regional biological diversity by retaining large blocks of forest, especially mature forest containing streams and wetlands.     

Interlaboratory comparisons in EMF survey measurements

This article presents methods and results of interlaboratory comparison in the electromagnetic field (EMF) survey measurements performed by Electromagnetic Environment Protection Laboratory. Based on the results, the author analyzed factors affecting the precision of EMF measurements, in particular—difficult to estimate—the “human factor”. In practice, the human factor has never been taken into account in the EMF measurements accuracy estimations budget, and the author estimate the importance of this factor that may include even up to half of the total uncertainty of measurements. Taking into account all factors depredating the accuracy of measurements, the uncertainty of the survey EMF measurements was estimated at the level of 2–4 dB.     

Evaluating Holistic Environmental Consequences of Brownfield Management Options Using Consequential Life Cycle Assessment for Different Perspectives

Brownfields are abandoned, idled, or underused sites whose reuse necessitates some sort of intervention. These sites are largely urban and are frequently contaminated. Brownfield management options can be associated with three types of environmental consequences: those resulting from changes in the site’s environmental quality (primary impacts); those resulting from the actual intervention stage (secondary impacts); and, if the vocation of the site changes, those resulting from effects on regional land use (tertiary impacts). Different stakeholders and decision-making contexts will place a different importance on each of these types of impacts. This article proposes a framework for comparing brownfield management options in regard to these three types of environmental impacts and for interpreting these results from different perspectives. The assessment framework is based on consequential life cycle assessment (LCA), which is shown to provide environmental information on the three types of impacts. The results for a case study are presented, where a “rehabilitation” option allowing residential redevelopment is compared to an “exposure minimization” option not resulting in the site being reused. Calculated primary and tertiary impacts are favorable to the rehabilitation option, whereas secondary impacts are favorable to the exposure minimization option. A ternary diagram presents the favorable option for different stereotypical perspectives. Tertiary impacts are much greater than secondary impacts, and consequently all perspectives that consider tertiary impacts favor rehabilitation. The perspective that considers primary and secondary impacts receives conflicting information. The ternary diagram, showing results for all perspectives, could possibly be useful for consensus-building among stakeholders.     

Reflections in a Stock Pond: Are Anthropogenically Derived Freshwater Ecosystems Natural, Artificial, or Something Else?

“A skyscraper is as natural as a bird’s nest” –Alan Watts For millennia, people have altered freshwater ecosystems directly through water development and indirectly by global change and surrounding land-use activities. In these altered ecosystems, human impacts can be subtle and are sometimes overlooked by the people who manage them. This article provides two case studies near Boulder, Colorado that demonstrate how perceptions regarding these ecosystems affect their management. These examples are typical of lakes and streams along the Front Range of Colorado that are simultaneously natural and social in origin. Although natural, many of the region’s freshwater ecosystems are affected by ongoing ecologic, hydrologic, chemical, and geomorphic modifications produced by human activity. People and nature are both active participants in the production of these freshwater ecosystems. The concept of “hybridity,” borrowed from geographers and social scientists, is useful for describing landscapes of natural and social origin. Hybrid freshwater ecosystems are features of the humanized landscape and are derived from deliberate cultural activities, nonhuman physical and biological processes, and incidental anthropogenic disturbance. Our perceptions of “natural” freshwater ecosystems and what definitions we use to describe them influences our view of hybrid systems and, in turn, affects management decisions regarding them. This work stresses the importance of understanding the underlying societal forces and cultural values responsible for the creation of hybrid freshwater ecosystems as a central step in their conservation and management.     

Onsite Sewage System Regulation Along the Great Lakes and the US EPA “Homeowner Awareness” Model

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), a significant percentage of residential onsite sewage systems (OSSs) are failing at any given time. The US EPA has therefore issued a set of recommended guidelines for OSS regulatory programs aimed at reducing overall failure rates. We conducted a survey of OSS regulatory program administrators with jurisdictions bordering a Great Lake. Our goal was to determine their programs’ capacities to meet the US EPA’s recommendations. We found that although some local programs meet the US EPA’s recommendations, most do not. In this article, we present our findings and conclusions for one of the US EPA’s models, the baseline “Homeowner Awareness” model. Most areas do not have recommended requirements that systems be inspected when properties transfer between owners. A majority do not track changes in ownership within the computerized databases they use to record information about systems. Although most provide at least “one-time” information to homeowners regarding proper OSS maintenance, most do not contact them periodically with reminders of needed maintenance. We include recommendations for resolving some of the issues that our research identified.     

The Concept of Farm Animal Welfare: Citizen Perceptions and Stakeholder Opinion in Flanders, Belgium

Several attempts to conceptualize farm animal welfare have been criticized for diverging reasons, among them often the failure to incorporate the public concern and opinion. This paper’s objective is to develop a conception of farm animal welfare that starts from the public’s perception and integrates the opinion of different stakeholder representatives, thus following a fork-to-farm approach. Four qualitative citizen focus group discussions were used to develop a quantitative questionnaire, which has been completed by a representative sample of Flemish citizens (n = 459). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were applied to develop a conception of farm animal welfare starting from an extended list of aspects that relate to animal production and associate with farm animal welfare in the public’s perception. In depth interviews with stakeholder representatives were used to match and adapt the structure of the animal welfare conception model. The resulting conception revealed seven dimensions grouped in two different levels. Three dimensions were animal-based: “Suffering and Stress,” “Ability to Engage in Natural Behavior,” and “Animal Health.” Four dimensions were resource-based: “Housing and Barn climate,” “Transport and Slaughter,” “Feed and Water,” and “Human-Animal Relationship.” This conception is distinct from earlier attempts since it is based on public perceptions; it addresses the opinion of different stakeholders, and it distinguishes empirically between animal-based and resource-based dimensions in the conceptualization of farm animal welfare. The relevancy of a popular definition is supported by the present demand oriented economy, in which animal welfare is a non-trade concern, and mainly left to the market where consumers still mainly act as individuals who calculate and weigh pros and cons.     

The Great Lake’s future at a cross road

Some argue that a collective vision for the future of the Laurentian Great Lakes is embodied in the␣Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA). The GLWQA is a binational agreement, first signed in 1972 by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and President Richard Nixon, wherein the two countries (the Parties) commit to “restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the waters of the Great Lakes Basin Ecosystem.” Article X of the Agreement states that the Parties shall conduct a comprehensive review of the operation and effectiveness of this Agreement following every third biennial report of the [International Joint] Commission (IJC). The IJC’s 12th Biennial Report, released in 2004, triggered this important science, program, and policy review which commenced May 2006. This essay makes the case for a rigorous review, that explores deliberately the future scope of the Agreement to protect the world’s largest surface freshwater resource, and calls for innovation in the governance regime of this binational ecosystem.     

Norton and Passmore on Valuing Nature

Norton argues on pragmatic “Deweyan” grounds that we should cease to ask scientists for value neutral definitions of “sustainability,” developed independently of moral and social values, to guide our environmental policy making debates. “Sustainability,” like human “health,” is a normative concept from the start—one that cannot be meaningfully developed by scientists or economists without input by all the stake holders affected. While I endorse Norton’s approach, I question his apparent presumption that concern for sustainability for the future is at odds with and ought to trump concern for enhancement in the present of public opportunities to access the goods nature represents. I argue that the two are not separable in practice. I argue for Passmore’s position that unless we take care to enhance equitable access to the good and services nature represents in the present, we cannot succeed in promoting sustainability for future generations.     

Beyond the Prevention of Harm: Animal Disease Policy as a Moral Question

European animal disease policy seems to find its justification in a “harm to other” principle. Limiting the freedom of animal keepers—e.g., by culling their animals—is justified by the aim to prevent harm, i.e., the spreading of the disease. The picture, however, is more complicated. Both during the control of outbreaks and in the prevention of notifiable, animal diseases the government is confronted with conflicting claims of stakeholders who anticipate running a risk to be harmed by each other, and who ask for government intervention. In this paper, we first argue that in a policy that aims to prevent animal diseases, the focus shifts from limiting “harm” to weighing conflicting claims with respect to “risks of harm.” Therefore, we claim that the harm principle is no longer a sufficient justification for governmental intervention in animal disease prevention. A policy that has to deal with and distribute conflicting risks of harm needs additional value assumptions that guide this process of assessment and distribution. We show that currently, policies are based on assumptions that are mainly economic considerations. In order to show the limitations of these considerations, we use the interests and position of keepers of backyard animals as an example. Based on the problems they faced during and after the recent outbreaks, we defend the thesis that in order to develop a sustainable animal disease policy other than economic assumptions need to be taken into account.     

Occupational risk from static magnetic fields of MRI scanners

The health care staff operating magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners are exposed to static magnetic field of significant spatial heterogenity and high level of flux density—usually existing permanently during the shift. The personnel can also be exposed to pulses of magnetic field of high rate of rise/fall, so-called gradient fields, which exist only during examination of patients. The level of workers’ exposure depends both on the type of the magnet and on the ergonomical characteristic of design of the particular MRI scanner. This paper presents the current state of the art on occupational exposure to static magnetic field health effects, gaps in scientific data, MRI workers’ exposure characteristics, research needs, and suggestions for the exposure assessment protocol for future investigations.     

A Pluralist–Expressivist Critique of the Pet Trade

Elizabeth Anderson’s “pluralist–expressivist” value theory, an alternative to the understanding of value and rationality underlying the “rational actor” model of human behavior, provides rich resources for addressing questions of environmental and animal ethics. It is particularly well-suited to help us think about the ethics of commodification, as I demonstrate in this critique of the pet trade. I argue that Anderson’s approach identifies the proper grounds for criticizing the commodification of animals, and directs our attention to the importance of maintaining social practices and institutions that respect the social meanings of animals. Her theory alone, however, does not adequately address the role of the state in this project. Drawing on social contract theory to fill this gap, I conclude that the state’s role in regulating the pet trade should be limited to ensuring the welfare of animals in the stream of commerce, not prohibiting their mass marketing altogether.     

What need to be known about the therapy with static magnetic fields

During the last three decades the interest toward clinical application of magnetic and electromagnetic stimulation increased worldwide. Numerous publications have discussed the possibility of exogenous magnetic fields to initiate beneficial effects on various biological processes, which are of critical importance for healing of different injuries and pathologies. Today, magnetic and electromagnetic fields are increasingly utilized for the treatment of numerous musculoskeletal injuries and pathologies. For example, selected magnetic fields were reported to be beneficial in the treatment of musculoskeletal injuries and post-surgical, post traumatic and chronic wounds, reduction of edema, in the acceleration of pain and stress relief, and thus contribute to healing processes. The application of this modality could be facilitated by establishing the exact dosimetry of application and by searching for biophysical mechanisms of action, as well. It should be remembered that “not all magnets are equal”, therefore the specific medical problem requires a proper diagnostics, a selection of the magnetic field to be applied and a design of the appropriate protocol for treatment. The paper advised that every study and report should carefully explain both the medical problem and the parameters of the applied magnetic field and cautions against generalized statements like “Magnetic field does/does not cause biological response”.