Modelling the impacts of land-use and drainage density on the water balance of a lowland–floodplain landscape in northeast Germany

This study presents the modelling approach and impact assessment of different strategies for managing wetland water resources and groundwater dynamics of landscapes which are characterised by the hydrological interactions of floodplains and the adjacent lowlands. The assessment of such impacts is based on the analysis of simulation results of complex scenarios of land-use changes and changes of the density of the drainage-network. The method has been applied to the 198 km² Lower Havel River catchment as a typical example of a lowland–floodplain landscape. The model used consists of a coupled soil water and groundwater model, where the latter one is additionally coupled to the surface channel network. Thus, the hydrological processes of the variable saturated soil zone as well as lateral groundwater flow and the interactions between surface water and groundwater are simulated in an integrated manner. The model was validated for several years of significantly different meteorological conditions. The comparison of lateral and vertical water balance components showed the dominance of lateral flow processes and the importance of the interactions between surface water and groundwater for the overall water balance and the hydrological state of that type of landscape.The simulation of land-use change scenarios showed only minor effects of land-use change on the water balance and groundwater recharge. Changes of groundwater recharge were particularly small within the wetland areas being part of the floodplain where interactions between surface water and groundwater are most pronounced. Alterations in vertical groundwater recharge were counter-balanced by the lateral interaction between groundwater and surface water. More significant deviations in groundwater recharge and storage were observed in the more peripheral areas towards the catchment boundaries which are characterised by greater groundwater distance from the surface and less intense of ground water–surface water interactions.However, the simulation results assuming a coarsening of the drainage network density showed the importance of drainage structure and geometry for the water balance: The removal of the artificial draining ditches in the floodplain would result in significant alterations of total groundwater recharge, i.e., less recharge from winter to early summer and an increase of groundwater recharge during summer and autumn. Furthermore the different effects of groundwater recharge alterations on the dynamics of groundwater stages within the wetland areas close to the floodplains compared to the more peripheral areas could be quantified. Finally, it will be discussed that a well-adjusted co-ordination of different management measures is required to reach a sustainable water resources management of such lowland–floodplain landscapes.     

Soil landscape constraint mapping for coastal land use planning using geographic information system

The aim of the study was to delineate soil landscape constraints to various land uses for urban and regional planning in the coastal areas of New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Soil landscape units mapped at 1:100,000 or coarser were sub-divided into component facets using advanced terrain modelling techniques in a geographic information system (GIS). The output facet grids were further overlain and linked with relevant GIS layers and soil databases to derive soil landscape constraint ratings for various land use purposes such as residential development, cropping and grazing. The constraint ratings for a specific land use were calculated based on objective and rule-based assessments of soil and landscape features such as engineering hazards, intrinsic fertility, drainage and other parameters. A series of soil landscape constraint maps which portray specific land use capability have been produced for the NSW coast. The methodology developed in this study has been demonstrated to be efficient in delineating soil landscape constraints and there is over 90% agreement between the model outputs and the assessment by soil surveyors with local knowledge. The output maps show levels of unprecedented detail of soil and landscape constraint for the coast of NSW and can be readily interpreted by land use planners and land managers for sustainable land use decision making practices.     

Potential impact model to assess agricultural pressure to landscape ecological functions

Conservation and protection of soil and water resources and visual aspects of landscape, as well as the promotion of biodiversity, are some of the central tasks of environmental policy development and social politics in the future. One of the main questions is: ‘which agricultural systems are able to guarantee sustained resource-conserving land use?’ Based on the ecological risk concepts of the 1970s and 1980s, a potential impact model was developed using a universal assessment algorithm derived from fuzzy logic. The model estimated the potential impact of agricultural land use on ecosystem function using a few resource indicators. Intervention intensities of agricultural land-use are set in relation to site conditions and aggregated for each of several defined potential impact categories. The interpretation with respect to risk and the calculation of potential impact values are explained.     

Analysing the effects of soil properties changes associated with land use changes on the simulated water balance: A comparison of three hydrological catchment models for scenario analysis

This paper presents results of a model comparison study within the LUCHEM framework (‘assessing the impact of Land Use Change on Hydrology by Ensemble Modelling’) where the effects of land use change on catchment water balances were assessed with various hydrological catchment models. The motivation for this part of LUCHEM is that it is well known that land use changes may induce changes in soil chemical and soil physical properties (e.g. bulk density). Unfortunately the effects of land use change on soil hydraulic properties are seldom investigated directly, but some information on changes in bulk density is available. Changes in bulk density can be used as input for pedotransfer functions to derive changes in soil hydraulic model parameters. In this study, three different catchment models (SWAT, TOPLATS, WASIM) are compared with respect to their sensitivity to land use change with and without consideration of associated changes in soil parameterisation. The results reveal that different models show a different sensitivity to the change in soil parameterisation while the magnitude of absolute changes in simulated evapotranspiration and discharge is similar. SWAT calculates largest changes in the water balance in a German mesoscale catchment. TOPLATS also shows significant changes in the calculated catchment water balances as well as in the runoff generation while WASIM reacts least sensitive. While TOPLATS and WASIM show similar patterns with respect to changes in the water flows for all subcatchments and land use scenarios, SWAT results are similar for the different catchments, but show scenario specific patterns. In relation to the magnitude of the effects on simulated water flows induced by land use change, the significance of considering soil change effects depends on both, the scenario definition and on the model sensitivity to soil parameterisation. For two of the three land use scenarios representing an intensified land use, SWAT and TOPLATS simulate water balance changes in the same order of magnitude due to both, land use and soil property changes. Therefore, a consideration of changes in soil properties as part of land use change scenario analysis is recommended. Future field work needs to aim at the validation of the assumed dependency of soil hydrologic properties on land use change.     

珠江三角洲地区高速公路沿线景观格局变化研究

根据1995年和2005年土地利用数据,借助地理信息系统软件和景观生态学方法研究珠江三角洲区域发展轴线——广深高速公路和广珠高速公路运营前后沿线区域的土地利用和景观格局变化,并进一步对比分析相同功能等级道路的生态效应差异。结果表明：（1）高速公路运营后,沿线区域建设用地增加迅速,耕地大量流失且迅速向建设用地转化;（2）公路的建设运营使得沿线区域人工干扰强度加大,景观斑块密度增加、面积减少、斑块形状趋向复杂,景观破碎化加剧;（3）道路途径区域的社会经济条件以及原有的景观格局特征是导致道路生态破碎效应差异的重要原因;（4）公路对自然景观的影响效应远大于其对人工景观的影响效应。     

中型景观尺度下斑块类型和地理特征影响杨树人工林干部病害的发生——以河南省清丰县为例

景观病理学在开展病原扩散、病害发生及其严重程度方面以其全新的视角,为森林病害的区域控制提供了新的研究技术及理论支持。首次利用景观病理学原理和方法对河南省清丰县一个中型景观下杨树人工林干部病害发生特征开展了研究,目的是解析在大尺度下斑块类型和地理特征对杨树人工林病害发生的影响。在100 km2的调查区域,以种植方式和林分类型划分斑块类型,分析显示发病株率在不同斑块间差异显著：农田间作斑块的林木发病株率显著低于孤立斑块、纯林斑块、混交林等斑块的发病株率;但发病株率在孤立斑块、纯林斑块及混交林等斑块间无显著差异。抚育管理措施对预防和减轻杨树人工林干部病害的发生起到关键左右：精细管理林分（有修枝、施肥和锄草）的林木发病株率（p=0.001）和发病指数（p〈0.001）均显著低于粗放管理林分（无修枝、无施肥和锄草等）。人类活动,如无序修剪和放牧很可能是造成村落附近林分发病率显著高于其他地点林分的主要原因。采用logistic回归,以品种编号、树龄、树高、林分密度、林分郁闭度、林分类型、斑块类型、地理特征,等为自变量建立病害发生预测模型。方程拟合达到极显著水平（Wald=71.248,p〈0.001）。方程总的预测正确率为68.2%,发病的预测正确率为79.8%。     

Evaluation for sustainable land use in coastal areas: A landscape ecological prospect

Evaluation of sustainability is the core of research on sustainable land use. To a certain extent, traditional social, economic and ecological evaluation for sustainable land use can be regarded as an appraisal on the temporal scale without evaluation of spatial patterns. Landscape ecology can help to realize spatial evaluation for sustainable land use. In this paper, we construct landscape ecological indicators for evaluating sustainable coastal land use from the aspects of landscape productivity, threats and stability, to realize a synthetic temporal-spatial evaluation. These cover the five pillars of sustainable land use, i.e. productivity, security, protection, viability and acceptability. The results of applying landscape ecological evaluation to a case study in Wudi County in China show that land use sustainability is somewhat low and there are great regional differences between its 11 villages. We classified the 11 villages into 5 grades: strong sustainable land use, sustainable land use, weak sustainable land use, weak unsustainable land use, and strong unsustainable land use. Each grade has different land use characteristics and differs in the counter-measures required. But the core countermeasures in all the grades are to improve landscape productivity, to reduce human threats and to optimize landscape patterns.     

基于水土流失的景观格局分析方法

景观格局和生态过程是景观生态学研究的重要内容,但是很多研究只重视景观格局的研究,而忽略了生态过程的研究。文章针对水土流失这一重要生态过程,提出了基于水土流失过程的景观坡度指数和景观空间负荷对比指数,并对黄土高原泾河流域15个子流域的景观格局进行了分析,认为泾河流北部各子流域主要以水土流失的＂源＂景观为主,景观坡度指数大,空间负荷指数小,水土流失风险大;流域南部各子流域上游以＂汇＂景观为主,坡度指数大,中下游以＂源＂景观为主,景观空间分布不均衡,存在一定的水土流失风险;流域东部局部子流域主要以水土流失的＂汇＂景观为主,＂源＂景观相对较小,＂源＂-＂汇＂景观空间分布均衡,水土流失风险小。     

Assessing effects of land use on landscape connectivity: loss and fragmentation of western U.S. forests

Effects of land-use change on the conservation of biodiversity have become a concern to conservation scientists and land managers, who have identified loss and fragmentation of natural areas as a high-priority issue. Despite urgent calls to inform national, regional, and state planning efforts, there remains a critical need to develop practical approaches to identify where important lands are for landscape connectivity (i.e., linkages), where land use constrains connectivity, and which linkages are most important to maintain network-wide connectivity extents. Our overall goal in this paper was to develop an approach that provides comprehensive, quantitative estimates of the effects of land-use change on landscape connectivity and illustrate its use on a broad, regional expanse of the western United States. We quantified loss of habitat and landscape connectivity for western forested systems due to land uses associated with residential development, roads, and highway traffic. We examined how these land-use changes likely increase the resistance to movement of forest species in non-forested land cover types and, therefore, reduce the connectivity among forested habitat patches. To do so, we applied a graph-theoretic approach that incorporates ecological aspects within a geographic representation of a network. We found that roughly one-quarter of the forested lands in the western United States were integral to a network of forested patches, though the lands outside of patches remain critical for habitat and overall connectivity. Using remotely sensed land cover data (ca. 2000), we found 1.7 million km2 of forested lands. We estimate that land uses associated with residential development, roads, and highway traffic have caused roughly a 4.5% loss in area (20 000 km2) of these forested patches, and continued expansion of residential land will likely reduce forested patches by another 1.2% by 2030. We also identify linkages among forest patches that are critical for landscape connectivity. Our approach can be readily modified to examine connectivity for other habitats/ecological systems and for other geographic areas, as well as to address more specific requirements for particular conservation planning applications.     

Ecological effects associated with land-use change in China's southwest agricultural landscape

Research on land-use and land-cover change, with associated effects on the ecoenvironment, is a key to understanding global change. The concept of 'ecosystem services' is also a hot issue in ecology and ecological economics. In this study, ecosystem service values are used to assess the ecological values of corresponding land-use types, so as to evaluate the ecological effects of regional land-use change. China's southwest agricultural landscape has unique ecological functions; but it also belongs to an ecologically fragile zone. Consequently, land-use change and associated ecological effects must be monitored to assure sustainable development of this area. Based on TM images in 1988, 1994 and 1999, the landscape classification maps of Yongsheng County were assessed using supervised classification and interactive modification methods. The transition matrix of land-use types and three indices of spatial patterns, patch-level, class-level and landscape-level indices, were calculated using models and GIS to examine the spatial patterns and dynamics of land use in the study area. The results show the influences of human activities and natural environmental elements, and that unused land has decreased rapidly, together with a continuous increase in forest during the past 11 years. There are also frequent intermediate transitions between farmland and unused land. An index for landscape diversity shows a tendency to increase, indicating that the proportions of each landscape element tended to average. Also, the decrease in the fractal dimension of unused land reveals that the effects of human activity are increasing. Ecological value calculations show that land-use change in Yongsheng County from 1988–1999 has resulted in positive ecological effects, with distinct spatial differences.     

Assessing landscape values: a proposal for a multidimensional conceptual model

To evaluate a specific form of resource management, for example, the maintenance of valuable cultural landscapes, the contributions of many different viewpoints must be considered. In this paper, a model for assessing and integrating the different aspects contributing to landscape evaluation is proposed. Some results of its use in landscape assessment in the Madrid region (central Spain) are discussed.The model takes into account five assessment dimensions which are considered to be independent—the ecological, productive, economic, social and cultural evaluative systems and it recognises and assumes conflicts and trade-offs between these components. The inclusion of the production system as an independent assessment dimension is original and is justified because it is the link that connects the ecological and economic systems. Since this dimension acts most directly on the ecosystem, the production system includes the attribute of ecological or strong (in the sense of [For the Common Good, Beacon Press, Boston, 1994]) sustainability.The evaluation method places special emphasis on defining a conceptual framework, and from this defines scenarios in comparison with which particular development models (landscape planning, resources management) can be evaluated. Seven scenarios, coming from a hypothetical, traditional sustainable scenario of resources management, are defined. One of these, the sound sustainable scenario, is defended as the only one viable in the long term, particularly in developing countries.This method was employed to evaluate the agricultural and natural landscape of the Madrid region municipalities. The multivariate approach adopted was based on the selection of indicator sets for each evaluative dimension. The structure of relationships among indicators was then analysed separately for each dimension and values assigned to the municipalities according to their position on the main axes of the multivariate analyses. Each municipality was assigned to one of the seven development scenarios by means of discriminant analysis. The approach’s greatest assets are its flexibility in the selection of the indicators and the efficacy in its monitoring and comparison of the different analysed cases once a rigorous conceptual framework was established.The paper discusses the conditions for the sustainability of the human activities and provides a method for evaluating and comparing scenarios of resources management.     

资源型城市土地利用变化及其对生态系统服务价值的影响

东营市是新兴的石油资源城市,土地利用/覆被变化剧烈且具有独特的区域特征。探讨该地区的土地利用变化及其对生态系统服务价值的影响有着重要的现实意义。为此,基于RS和GIS技术,利用Costanza提出的生态系统服务价值评估方法,研究了东营市1986—2008年间的土地利用变化及其引起的生态系统服务价值动态变化。研究结果表明：（1）耕地是东营市主要的土地利用类型,面积有所减少;未利用地和次生盐碱地所占比重较大,居民点及工矿用地大幅增加,油田生产建设和生态环境保护矛盾非常突出。（2）生态系统服务价值减少了6.68%。2008年东营市提供的生态服务仍然以维护原材料、气体调节、食物生产、气候等为主,而废物处理、水源涵养、生物多样性保护、土壤形成与保护和娱乐文化功能是比较弱的。今后应维护生物多样性保护和水源涵养功能,防止土壤盐渍化,提升区域生态系统服务功能;（3）生态系统服务价值对生态价值系数的敏感性指数均小于1,说明研究区内的生态系统服务价值缺乏弹性,研究结果是可信的。     

Sensitivity of mesquite shrubland CO2 exchange to precipitation in contrasting landscape settings

In semiarid ecosystems, physiography (landscape setting) may interact with woody-plant and soil microbe communities to constrain seasonal exchanges of material and energy at the ecosystem scale. In an upland and riparian shrubland, we examined the seasonally dynamic linkage between ecosystem CO2 exchange, woody-plant water status and photosynthesis, and soil respiration responses to summer rainfall. At each site, we compared tower-based measurements of net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE) with ecophysiological measurements among velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina Woot.) in three size classes and soil respiration in sub-canopy and inter-canopy micro-sites. Monsoonal rainfall influenced a greater shift in the magnitude of ecosystem CO2 assimilation in the upland shrubland than in the riparian shrubland. Mesquite water status and photosynthetic gas exchange were closely linked to the onset of the North American monsoon in the upland shrubland. In contrast, the presence of shallow alluvial groundwater in the riparian shrubland caused larger size classes of mesquite to be physiologically insensitive to monsoonal rains. In both shrublands, soil respiration was greatest beneath mesquite canopies and was coupled to shallow soil moisture abundance. Physiography, through its constraint on the physiological sensitivity of deeply rooted woody plants, may interact with plant-mediated rates of soil respiration to affect the sensitivity of semiarid-ecosystem carbon exchange in response to episodic rainfall.     

七里海湿地土地利用变化及其景观格局演替分析

通过遥感手段,利用大量的ETM、TM、MSS遥感影像,从土地覆盖变化、景观格局指数等角度,分析了近30年七里海湿地的土地利用变化特点及景观演替趋势特征。详细分析了七里海内水域、芦苇等用地类型的转化趋势与成因,并通过多年来景观指数对比的方法揭示了该区域景观连通性和破碎化程度的变化趋势。研究结果表明：由于入境水量减少,1976到2009年期间七里海湿地水域面积减少了80％,之后由于保护区的建立,水域面积持续增长。期间以保护区建立为节点,主要的土地利用类型变化趋势是水域-芦苇-水域。1976到2009年期问七里海总体聚集度指数从95．75下降到87．54、水面的破碎化指数从6．42上升到10．74,反映出区域景观连通性变差,破碎化程度在加剧,人类活动对环境影响越来越深刻。     

西南岩溶山区景观生态特征与景观生态建设

探讨了西南岩溶山区景观生态结构与功能以及景观生态过程的不同于其他区域的基本特征，尝试从景观角度认识西南岩溶区生态空间特性与演化过程。受地质地貌和土地利用的影响。西南岩溶山区景观基质脆弱、景观格局分异明显，具破碎化与景观结构粗粒化、景观动态变化范围大且速度快、整体退化明显的特点，以石漠化为特征的景观演化削弱了岩溶生态系统的生态服务功能。岩溶山区的景观生态建设须充分认识岩溶山区资源环境优势，充分利用当地的适生植物资源，协调生态效应和水文效应，促进水土资源的有效保持向高效利用发展，形成新的高效、和谐的人工自然景观。今后应把景观格局与生态过程结合起来、与人文因子和地学背景结合起来，加强小尺度的景观变化研究。     

滇池流域土地利用景观空间格局对水质的影响

选用综合水质评价方法,对滇池流域进行水质评价。选取斑块数量（NP）、斑块密度（PD）、最大斑块指数（LPI）、最大形状指数（LSI）,作为表征景观空间格局的参数,来分析流域优势斑块对水质的影响。对水质评价结果与景观指数进行相关性分析得出：居民点及工矿用地斑块数量越多、形状越不规则,有利于延缓水质状况的恶化;耕地斑块越大,越集中,本身产生的面源污染浓度就越高,而流经耕地的径流中的污染物浓度则会因大斑块的吸附过滤作用而降低;林地斑块密度越大,对污染物的截留纳污作用就越大,而斑块越大,可能产生局限性,导致未流经林地的污染物直接进入河流而影响水质。     

Resource use conflicts in Usangu Plains,Mbarali District,Tanzania

Conflicts over natural resources such as land, water, and forests are ubiquitous. People everywhere have competed for natural resources to enhance their livelihoods. However, the dimensions, level and intensity of conflict vary greatly from one place to another. This study was conducted in Usangu plains, Mbarali district, Tanzania, to investigate resource use conflicts and their underlying causes. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and household survey using a structured questionnaire were the major tools for data collection. Participant observation and secondary data sources were also used to supplement information. The study revealed the existence of resource use conflicts in the area. About 50% of respondents argued that relationships between the various ethnic groups in Usangu plains were bad. Conflicts were centred on competition for water and land. Crop damage was ranked highest (25% of respondents) as a cause behind many conflicts in the area. The study recommends that the government should redefine land tenure and land rights, enhance crop-livestock linkages and carry out a stakeholder analysis in the Usangu plains.     

Analysis of landscape pattern: towards a ‘top down’ indicator for evaluation of landuse

Landscapes as highly complex systems are subject to many different assessment procedures despite the fact that their development is not really predictable. Every synthetic model of landscape functioning will probably fail in demonstrating the landscape behaviour due to the decreasing precision and relevance of its output with increasing complexity. Two approaches are presented here which use deductive methods to describe landscape behaviour as indicated by its spatial structure. The one is a correlative concept which is characterized by all the advantages and disadvantages of statistical regression methods. It is strongly dependent on data quality. In the second study an expert knowledge system is developed. Fuzzy set theory is applied to transfer rules of landscape ecological experience to image parameters derived from satellite data. Both approaches are compared regarding the problems faced in the work during implication. Theoretical restrictions and the applicability in landscape assessment is discussed.     

Associations of forest bird species richness with housing and landscape patterns across the USA.

In the United States, housing density has substantially increased in and adjacent to forests. Our goal in this study was to identify how housing density and human populations are associated with avian diversity. We compared these associations to those between landscape pattern and avian diversity, and we examined how these associations vary across the conterminous forested United States. Using data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey, the U.S. Census, and the National Land Cover Database, we focused on forest and woodland bird communities and conducted our analysis at multiple levels of model specificity, first using a coarse-thematic resolution (basic models), then using a larger number of fine-thematic resolution variables (refined models). We found that housing development was associated with forest bird species richness in all forested ecoregions of the conterminous United States. However, there were important differences among ecoregions. In the basic models, housing density accounted for < 5% of variance in avian species richness. In refined models, 85% of models included housing density and/or residential land cover as significant variables. The strongest guild response was demonstrated in the Adirondack-New England ecoregion, where 29% of variation in richness of the permanent resident guild was associated with housing density. Model improvements due to regional stratification were most pronounced for cavity nesters and short-distance migrants, suggesting that these guilds may be especially sensitive to regional processes. The varying patterns of association between avian richness and attributes associated with landscape structure suggested that landscape context was an important mediating factor affecting how biodiversity responds to landscape changes. Our analysis suggested that simple, broadly applicable, land use recommendations cannot be derived from our results. Rather, anticipating future avian response to land use intensification (or reversion to native vegetation) has to be conditioned on the current landscape context and the species group of interest. Our results show that housing density and residential land cover were significant predictors of forest bird species richness, and their prediction strengths are likely to increase as development continues.     

土壤、土地利用多样性及其与相关景观指数的关联分析

土壤作为人类赖以生存的物质基础,与土地利用之间存在密切联系,土壤类型及属性的差异很大程度上决定了土地利用的方式,同时土地利用方式的不同也间接地改变着土壤类型、性质及功能多样性的格局。在人地矛盾、人与自然矛盾不断加剧的今天,研究土地和土壤的空间分布格局变化及两者之间的交互关系具有重要意义。利用土壤多样性理论和景观生态学原理综合分析土壤、土地利用类型的空间分布格局,并借助空间网格的概念量化分析土壤和土地利用类型的空间分布情况。以河南省中南部样区为研究对象,利用仙农熵变形公式计算了1 km×1 km、3 km×3 km、5 km×5 km 3种网格尺度下的土壤和土地利用的空间分布多样性和各县市的土壤和土地利用构成组分多样性,运用ArcGIS探讨了多样性指数与景观指数之间的关联性,综合评价研究区的土壤类型空间分布与土地利用空间分布格局的相互性。研究表明：同一种土壤和土地利用类型的空间分布多样性指数在异网格尺度下具有相似的分异规律;土地利用与土壤类型的构成组分多样性之间不具有明显的相关性,土壤类型均匀分布的地区,土地利用类型不一定会均匀分布,而两者的平均斑块面积之间具有明显的相关性,土壤斑块的大小对土地利用斑块的大小影响较大,土壤类型的空间分布特征在一定程度上,将影响土地利用的空间分布格局和变化过程;土壤类型的面积指数、平均斑块面积指数分别与土壤空间分布多样性之间具有较好的相关性,相关系数分别为r2=0.990、r2=0.599。而土地利用的面积指数、平均斑块面积指数与土地利用空间分布多样性指数之间的相关性较差,相关系数分别为r2=0.437、r2=0.034。土壤的平均斑块形状指数与多样性指数之间存在一定正相关关系,相关系数为r2=0.612;但土地利用的形状指数与多样性之