SOCIAL CLASS DIFFERENCES IN RESERVOIR VISITS1

ABSTRACT: Previous research provides evidence of a socioeconomic bias in outdoor recreational participation. One explanation of this bias is that socioeconomic groups have differential opportunities to participate, with the “costs” of this participation especially serving to restrict the recreational access of lower class persons living in urban areas. Using driving distance as a measure of cost, this study assessed the effects of travel costs on the attendance of three social class groups from an urban population at rural reservoir facilities. Findings support the contention that, while increased driving distance has a dampening effect on recreational participation, this effect is most pronounced for the lower class person. These findings point to the importance of equity considerations in the planning of outdoor recreational facilities.     

FORECASTING DEMAND FOR RECREATIONAL BOATS1

ABSTRACT: This paper suggests theoretical models to forecast the demand for recreational boats in a metropolitan area, and their expected usage in various regional water bodies and marinas. The models, which are similar to those used in transportation studies, are implemented using statistical regression analysis and can be easily applied to a wide range of case studies. The models have been used to forecast demand for boats by type and size in the Cleveland S.M.S.A. The proportion of boats attracted to boating facilities on Lake Erie has been calculated. This study is significant in suggesting a theoretically sound methodology to project facilities required for recreational boats.     

Managing for Recreational Experience Opportunities: The Case of Hikers in Protected Areas in Catalonia,Spain

Planning and management for recreational activities in protected areas involves an understanding of many complex factors. Segmentation of recreation demand and of the main physical or sporting activities can contribute to the design of more efficient management strategies, which may help to maintain or significantly enhance satisfaction with the recreation experience, and this in turn could improve the interest in and appreciation of the natural environment. The current study examined the motivations of hikers in three small Natura 2000 protected areas. It establishes a typology or categorization as a contribution to better management based on a survey conducted through on-site personal interviews with a representative sample of 569 hikers. Through an analysis of the principal intervening components by means of cluster analysis, we identified three groups of hikers based on three motivational dimensions: (1) nature-minded hikers, (2) sporting hikers and (3) general-purpose hikers. The most striking results were the significant differences among group variables related to visit behaviour (frequency and duration of visits and number of people per group), previous knowledge (protection status of the areas) and recreational frequentation (trail categories and protected areas visited). A positive correlation between the degree of sympathy for nature and the degree of satisfaction with the recreational experience (including positive evaluation of the public facilities, signposting and services offered) was also observed. The results are discussed in terms of their applicability and implications in hiking management in protected natural areas such as those of Natura 2000.     

PLANNING FOR THE REHABILITATION OF GRAVEL PITS1

ABSTRACT: By field investigations and planning, it is profitable to rehabilitate gravel pits as recreational lakes in urban areas. Some of the important aspects to be considered are topography, soil, surface water and groundwater. A case study is presented and some general guidelines in the rehabilitation process are given. This kind of a use for derelict land is important at the present time as there is a growing demand for recreational lakes in urban areas.     

An Approach for Recreation Suitability Analysis to Recreation Planning in Gölcük Nature Park

Gölcük Nature Park (GNP) is an area protected by law in Turkey. It is an important nature park with rich flora, fauna, geomorphologic forms, landscape features, and recreational potential in the region. However, GNP does not have a recreation management plan. The purpose of this study was to determine the actual natural, cultural, and visual resources of GNP, determine the most suitable recreational sites with multiple factors, evaluate the demands and tendencies of visitors, and suggest recreational activities and facilities for the most suitable sites of GNP. However, it was also conceived as leading to a recreational plan and design of GNP in the future and identifying the entire appropriate and current data of GNP with the creation of various maps. This study used multifactor analysis to determine the most suitable recreation sites of GNP. Used recreation factors were established including degree of slope, proximity to water resources, accessibility, elevation, vegetation, soil, climate, aspect, current cultural facilities, visual values, and some limiting factors in accordance with the characteristics of GNP. Weighting and suitability values of factors were determined by 30 local expert surveys. All obtained data were evaluated and integrated in the Geographical Information Systems base. Obtained maps were overlapped. Thus, recreational suitability zones map were created manually. However, the demands and behaviours from visitor surveys in GNP were focused on the most suitable recreation sites of the park. Finally, 10% of GNP was identified as the most suitable sites for recreational use. Various recreational facilities and activities (including picnicking, sports facilities and playgrounds, camping sites, walking paths, food and local outlets, etc.) were recommended for nine of the most suitable areas on the proposed recreational map.     

The importance of local context in the planning of environmental projects: examples from two biogas cases

The planning of facilities to improve the environment is often carried through in the form of locally based construction projects. These projects can be complex, involving a variety of issues and a number of different actors from both the public and private sectors. By drawing on previous research on project planning, an analytical model for analysing the issues connected with the planning and implementation of environmental projects is developed. The main argument of the paper is the importance of considering how context-specific factors affect project design and project management. The empirical material is taken from the planning of two biogas projects in Sweden and it is showed how differences in factors such as the actors involved, the organisational framework and the political setting lead to two markedly distinct planning approaches. The results of the paper, which also highlight the importance of a flexible planning approach, are relevant not only for biogas but also for other projects with similar characteristics.     

Environmental considerations for levees and floodwalls

Levees and floodwalls are used extensively throughout the United States for flood control. Levee projects often lack ecological, recreational, and aesthetic values, except for incidental fish and wildlife benefits derived from borrow pits and recreational facilities found in some urban settings. In recent years increased environmental concern within construction agencies and greater responsiveness to public opinion have resulted in increasing numbers of levee projects designed, built, and maintained with environmental objectives in mind. This paper reviews environmental concepts successfully employed on levee projects constructed in recent years by the US Army Corps of Engineers. Some of the most innovative concepts are described and illustrated and design considerations are discussed.     

A MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY INVESTMENT PROBLEM IN RHODE ISLAND1

ABSTRACT: The traditional “requirements” approach to water system planning presumes perfectly inelastic demand and arbitrarily selects a fixed water requirement per capita per day as a planning target. Economists have often pointed out that such a policy leads to over-investment in water supply facilities; a superior approach would maximize some measure of net benefits incorporating price-sensitive demand. Using a dynamic programming model to depict an investment problem in Rhode Island, we find that ambiguities about how to incorporate price-sensitive demand into a decision framework may make such an approach as arbitrary as the requirements approach. Water conservation responses may be a function of other social parameters than water price; if so, variations in these social parameters should be regarded as economic alternatives to water supply investments.     

A method to assess the allocation suitability of recreational activities: An economic approach

Most existing methods of planning focus on development of a recreational area; less consideration is placed on the allocation of recreational activities within a recreational area. Most existing research emphasizes the economic benefits of developing a recreational area; few authors assessed the allocation suitability of recreational activities from an economic point of view. The purpose of this work was to develop a model to assess the allocation suitability of recreational activities according to the application of a concept of analysis of cost and benefit under a premise of ecological concern. The model was verified with a case study of Taiwan. We suggest that the proposed model should form a critical part of recreational planning.     

Converting an estuary to Lake Grevelingen: Environmental review of a coastal engineering project

To guarantee protection from storm floods in the southwestern part of the Netherlands, the length of exposed coastline is being greatly reduced by the construction of dams and a storm surge barrier. As part of the Delta Project, the mouth of the Grevelingen estuary was closed in 1971. Due to the closure, tidal movement was eliminated, which resulted in changes in environmental factors such as transparency and chloride and phosphate concentration. The number of plant and animal groups decreased. Large areas of sand flats and salt marshes, which were formerly exposed to the tides, were left “high and dry.” This resulted in enormous changes for the communities living in these areas. The development of a new ecological system and the changed potential afforded by the water and land areas for human use, emphasized the need for physical planning. The potential uses (functions) of the new system are discussed in this article. Special attention is given to the demand for recreational facilities and nature conservation and to the balanced realization of these main functions. The methods applied in choosing between alternatives in physical planning are explained. Water quality and ecosystem management are discussed. One of the main management objectives is the prevention of a further decrease in the chloride concentration and the number of species. A sluice was, therefore, put into operation in 1978, by means of which water was exchanged between the North Sea and Lake Grevelingen. The responses observed are discussed here. In the near future, a crucial decision will have to be made: Will Lake Grevelingen remain a salt-water lake or will it become a fresh-water lake?     

The implicit price of urban public parks and greenways: a spatial-contextual approach

This paper examines the value residents place on public parks in a mid-sized urban area. The analysis makes a direct contribution to the literature by examining the extent to which spatial and neighbourhood context is related to the house price premium or discount associated with public recreational opportunities, natural resource areas and urban greenways. The analysis shows that the value of public parks and greenways varies across space, neighbourhood context and park type. Community area fixed-effects are included to bolster the findings. The findings indicate that park and greenway investment should be planned and managed contextually in urban areas. Park planners can use these findings to inform public policy debates over park investment and, perhaps, support efforts focused on comprehensive neighbourhood planning.     

Public parks as an element of urban planning: a missing piece in Accra's growth and development

Public parks are important to urban environments, residents, and visitors. Among other functions, they provide environmental services, such as air and water purification, and they increase both recreational opportunities and the attractiveness of the urban environment. Because of their importance, urban parks serve as public spaces that provide visitors and urban residents with rights to the city. This paper identifies the dearth of urban public parks in Accra-Tema city-region as worrying. The Accra Plan 1958 underscored the significance of green spaces and designated the coastal strip for parks development but the areas have been lost to various urban uses. We argue that the continual neglect of public parks within urban planning and community development schemes in the Accra-Tema city-region is a major concern because it is depriving the citizens a right to the city and its public spaces. A number of factors have worked adversely against the provision of public parks and green spaces in the city-region. These include development pressures, undue political interference, a complex land delivery system, and ad hoc planning. The paper concludes by offering policy suggestions as to how to resolve the dearth of parks and green spaces in the city-region.     

浅述石油库综合污染防控

随着石油库数量的不断增加和公众环境保护意识的增强,石油库环境污染问题越来越引人关注。正确认识和合理预防、控制油库污染对于实现企业经济、社会以及环境效益的协调发展起着非常重要的作用。文章简要分析了石油库的常规环境污染途径、方式及火灾爆炸事故造成的环境风险,分别从规划、设计和运行三个阶段论述了常规环境污染控制以及事故状态下的风险防控,并提出此项工作应贯穿于规划、设计和运行的全过程中。     

THE PLIGHT OF THE URBAN RESERVOIR: A CASE STUDY1

ABSTRACT: This paper details the increasing tendency to overdevelop lands adjacent to public reservoirs. The impact on water quality of the pollutant load carried in surface runoff from developed lands is described as well as the depreciation in recreational experience due to loss of scenic horizons. The case study, Spruce Run Reservoir in Clinton, New Jersey, included population and demand projections. Land speculation and proposed development are evaluated on a physical constraint basis. Areas of conflict are outlined and conflict resolutions proposed.     

社会主义市场经济体制下的区域规划

建立社会主义市场经济体制，就是要使市场在国家宏观调控下对资源配置起基础性作用。经济体制的改革对区域规划提出了新的要求．它决不意味着取消或削弱区域规划，而是要更好地发挥区域规划在发展区域经济中的宏观调控作用。区域规划是区域经济发展的超前研究，其价值在于具有比较准确的发展预见性，能够提出正确的发展方向和战略。区域规划的核心内容是指导资源优化配置，但它并不具有直接的资源流动机制，只能作为资源流动的信息机制。区域规划发挥宏观调控作用的必要条件是政府立法，公益性设施列入国家或地方的计划，在实施中争取社会舆论和社会投资的支持，对经济落后区域的开发采取国家扶持的政策。     

A combined site proximity and recreation index approach to value natural amenities: an example from a natural resource management region of Murray-Darling Basin

This paper presents a hedonic property price model of rural land in a natural resource management region of the Murray-Darling Basin in Australia. In traditional hedonic models, the marginal value of environmental amenities is estimated using distance to or size of the environmental asset. The approach applied in this study offers the potential for a richer set of information, where environmental assets are described in terms of their 'recreational attractiveness'. The level of recreational attractiveness is represented as latent variables that are based on park facilities and recreational activities offered at each site. For a property in the study area that is 1?km away from the River Murray, moving half a kilometre closer will increase the property price by $245,000, holding every other variable constant at the mean. This value is magnified by $27,000 if the house is in an area where there is high river recreational attractiveness and drops by $14,000 if river recreational attractiveness is low. By including recreational quality indices in a typical hedonic framework that is corrected for spatial dependency, the model is able to capture how individuals value environmental amenities around their homes based on the site's natural characteristics as well as recreational services.     

PLANNERS AS A PUBLIC IN WATER RESOURCES PUBLIC PARTICIPATION PROGRAMS1

This paper suggests a number of benefits in identifying urban and regional planners as a public in public participation programs of water resources planning studies. A perspective on public participation is presented. Recent trends and developing concepts are identified: emphasis on the need to coordinate urban and regional planning activities with water resources planning, increasing system complexity, the goals and objectives orientation of planning, planning for multi-objectives, the evaluation of a broader range of alternatives, and the consideration of water alternatives as only one set of measures to further society's aspirations. One way to assist in capitalizing on these trends is to seek out participation of those in other planning efforts who are involved in planning but on a different level. Because of their intimate knowledge of an areas history, growth and development, political climate, local perceptions of needs and desires, and major problems and issues they are able to contribute a great deal of insight in making the water resources planning effort more responsive at the local level. The paper describes one of the first major efforts at working-level public-planner contact which was carried out as part of the Susquehanna River Basin Study. A regional survey team comprised of an engineer and an economist from a federal agency and a state water resources planner met informally with planners, city managers, and local planning commissions to discuss issues related to water resources and the growth and development of local areas. This effort while only part of the overall public participation program yielded a number of benefits and if expanded and refined would be a very useful experience in other studies.     

The costs to farmers and estate owners of public access to the countryside

This paper considers the external costs of public access on privately‐owned farm and estate land in Scotland. The increased costs and reductions in income associated with public access are found to be highly variable and site‐specific, with the main effects on land in areas of high population density or high scenic quality, or with recreational attributes. Although costs were on average higher for estates, reflecting their larger area and recreational potential, on a per‐hectare basis the costs of access were greater for the farm sector. Whilst much of the public access exists through de facto rights on open‐access land, there was evidence for an increasing commercialization of open‐air recreation, particularly with respect to more specialized activities. The discussion considers the extent to which the costs of access for land managers are reflected in policies determining the public provision of countryside access.     

A Regional Waterway Management System for Balancing Recreational Boating and Resource Protection

Florida’s coasts have been transformed over the past three decades as population growth and unprecedented demand for individual shore access to bays and estuaries led to the creation of residential canal developments. Thousands of miles of channels and basins were dredged as a by-product of this urbanization process. The navigable waterways that resulted are now being stressed by increasing boat traffic and canal-side activities. Recognizing their common goal to preserve the recreational and ecological value of southwest Florida waterways, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, the four-county West Coast Inland Navigation District, and the University of Florida Sea Grant College Program signed a Memorandum of Agreement. The signatories agreed to develop a science-based Regional Waterway Management System (RWMS), which is a new approach to waterway planning and permitting based on carefully mapped channel depths, a census of actual boat populations, and the spatial extent of natural resources. The RWMS provides a comprehensive, regional overview of channel conditions and the geographic distribution and severity of existing impediments to safe navigation and resource protection. RWMS information and analyses result in regional-scale permitting to accommodate water-dependent uses while minimizing environmental impacts and reducing public expenditures. Compared with traditional approaches to waterway management, the science-based RWMS is relatively unbiased, objective, transparent, ecologically sound, and fiscally prudent.