外来入侵植物紫茎泽兰对植物多样性的影响

采用样方法调查了云南省和四川省5个受紫茎泽兰入侵的样地中草本植物和灌木的种类和数量,分析了其物种丰富度指数、多样性指数和均匀度指数.结果表明,5个样地采得本地植物87种,其中常见本地植物32种,隶属19科31属.紫茎泽兰入侵造成5种生境条件下物种丰富度指数下降显著或极显著.除样地d外,其他样地紫茎泽兰入侵的样方Simpson多样性指数和Shannon-Wiener多样性指数下降显著或极显著.而紫茎泽兰入侵对Pielou均匀度指数的影响则没有表现出明显的规律.不同生境条件下,植物群落的季节变化有所不同,以一年生草本植物为主的群落,其多样性指数和均匀度指数下降趋势较以多年生草本植物和灌木为主的群落更为明显.     

Caste allocation in litter Pheidole: lessons from plant defense theory

The allocation to growth, defense and reproduction varies in social insects within a species' life cycle and between species. A life cycle model (Oster and Wilson 1978) generally failed to predict caste allocation in small litter-nesting colonies of Neotropical Pheidole. Two of its assumptions were often invalid: food was unlikely to be limiting in four of five populations, and sexual biomass production accelerated, not decelerated, with colony size in three of five populations. One of five Pheidole populations studied had higher caste ratios (soldiers /workers) in reproductive colonies as predicted, and in no species did caste functions conform to predictions. We also adapted three models from plant defense theory to study between-species patterns of caste allocation. Among 12 litter Pheidole the amount of sterile biomass devoted to soldiers varied from 18 to 62%. Queen size, growth rate, and soldier investment positively covaried. Only one model, the cost of replacement hypothesis (McKey 1979), correctly predicted that species with costly female alates invest more in defense. The two hypotheses linking apparency to defense may also be valid if fast-growing colonies are more likely to attract the attention of predators.     

Above- and belowground responses of Arctic tundra ecosystems to altered soil nutrients and mammalian herbivory

Theory and observation indicate that changes in the rate of primary production can alter the balance between the bottom-up influences of plants and resources and the top-down regulation of herbivores and predators on ecosystem structure and function. The exploitation ecosystem hypothesis (EEH) posited that as aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) increases, the additional biomass should support higher trophic levels. We developed an extension of EEH to include the impacts of increases in ANPP on belowground consumers in a similar manner as aboveground, but indirectly through changes in the allocation of photosynthate to roots. We tested our predictions for plants aboveground and for phytophagous nematodes and their predators belowground in two common arctic tundra plant communities subjected to 11 years of increased soil nutrient availability and/or exclusion of mammalian herbivores. The less productive dry heath (DH) community met the predictions of EEH aboveground, with the greatest ANPP and plant biomass in the fertilized plots protected from herbivory. A palatable grass increased in fertilized plots while dwarf evergreen shrubs and lichens declined. Belowground, phytophagous nematodes also responded as predicted, achieving greater biomass in the higher ANPP plots, whereas predator biomass tended to be lower in those same plots (although not significantly). In the higher productivity moist acidic tussock (MAT) community, aboveground responses were quite different. Herbivores stimulated ANPP and biomass in both ambient and enriched soil nutrient plots; maximum ANPP occurred in fertilized plots exposed to herbivory. Fertilized plots became dominated by dwarf birch (a deciduous shrub) and cloudberry (a perennial forb); under ambient conditions these two species coexist with sedges, evergreen dwarf shrubs, and Sphagnum mosses. Phytophagous nematodes did not respond significantly to changes in ANPP, although predator biomass was greatest in control plots. The contrasting results of these two arctic tundra plant communities suggest that the predictions of EEH may hold for very low ANPP communities, but that other factors, including competition and shifts in vegetation composition toward less palatable species, may confound predicted responses to changes in productivity in higher ANPP communities such as the MAT studied here.     

黄土区不同配置人工林物种多样性研究

以黄土高原山西省方山县下昔沟流域为研究点,采用标准样地调查法,应用物种丰富度、Simpson指数、Shannon-Wiener指数、群落均匀度指数研究15种不同配置的人工林的а多样性动态特征,结果表明,在立地条件、密度、林龄相同的情况下,油松和刺槐这两种针阔混交林下的灌、草层Shannon-Weiner index、Pielou index、Richness指数最高,Simpson index最低;纯林中阔叶林下的灌、草层Shannon-Weiner index、Pielou index、Richness指数高于针叶林,但Simpson index低于针叶林;针叶林下的灌、草层Shannon-Weiner index、Pielou index、Richness指数最低,但Simpson index最高。研究结果为：针阔混交林更有利于林下植被的发育和更新,加速黄土区生态系统的恢复。     

Medicinal plants: Potential for economic development in the state of Uttaranchal,India

The present study deals with the medicinal plant wealth of Uttaranchal state in northern India. A total of 964 medicinal plant species were documented with the help of a literature survey and fieldwork undertaken in the various parts of the state. These medicinal plants were used in curing 135 ailments, with the highest numbers of species being used for treatment of cuts and wounds, followed by fever and diarrhoea. Among the various life forms, herbs were dominant (64%), followed by 20% shrubs and 16% tree species. Taxonomically, Asteraceae was the dominant family, having 87 species of medicinal plants, followed by Fabaceae (58 species), Lamiaceae (49 species), Rosaceae (30 species), Liliaceae (29 species), Apiaceae (28 species), Euphorbiaceae (26 species), Ranunculaceae (26 species) and Orchidaceae (23 species). Such a rich resource base indicates the huge potential for economic development of the state through herb-based industries.     

南亚热带中幼龄针阔混交林生态化学计量特征

为了解南亚热带中幼龄针阔混交林植物、凋落物和土壤生态化学计量特征,本研究以10-11 a、7-9 a和3-5 a林龄人工针阔混交林为研究对象,通过对植物叶片（乔木、灌木和草本）、凋落物及土壤的碳（C）、氮（N）和磷（P）含量及计量比分析,探讨了中幼龄针阔混交林生态化学计量特征、相互关系及其N、P养分限制。结果表明,1）针阔混交林乔木、灌木和草本叶片碳含量均值分别为502.88、472.18和438.31 mg·g-1,其叶片碳含量表现为乔木〉灌木〉草本;叶片全氮含量均值分别为15.87、19.61和15.72 mg·g-1,叶片全磷含量均值为1-09、1.24和0.91 mg·g-1,其叶片氮和磷含量均表现为灌木〉乔木〉草本;凋落物碳、氮和磷含量均值分别为497-07、11-36和0.45 mg·g-1,凋落物氮和磷含量均低于植物。2）针阔混交林乔木叶片C/N、C/P和N/P均值分别为34.43、517-06和15.63,灌木和草本叶片C/N、C/P和N/P均值分别为26.60和28.55、438.77和507.59、16.52和17.95,而凋落物C/N、C/P和N/P为46.50、1193.26和26.17;不同林龄杉木叶片N/P均低于14,表明杉木生长受N限制;10-11 a林龄阔叶树生长受N的限制,7-9 a和3-5 a林龄阔叶树生长受P的限制,灌木和草本生长基本受P限制。3）植物叶片全氮和全磷含量呈极显著正相关（P〈0.01）,C/N与C/P呈极显著正相关（P〈0.01）,而全磷含量与C/N、C/P、N/P呈极显著和显著负相关（P〈0.01,P〈0-05）;土壤有机碳含量与土壤全氮含量、C/P、N/P呈极显著和显著正相关（P〈0.01,P〈0-05）。本研究为中幼龄人工林抚育及可持续经营提供科学参考。     

Inferring Metapopulation Dynamics from Patch-Level Incidence of Florida Scrub Plants

Spatial structure and dynamics of multiple populations may explain species distribution patterns in patchy communities with heterogeneous disturbance regimes, especially when species have poor dispersal. The endemic-rich Florida (U.S.A.) rosemary scrub occupies about 4% of the west portion of Archbold Biological Station and occurs scattered within a matrix of less xeric vegetation. Longer fire-return times and higher frequency of open patches in rosemary scrub provide favorable habitat for many plant species. Occupancy of 123 species of vascular plants and ground lichens in 89 patches was determined by repeated site surveys. About two-thirds of the species occurring at more than 14 patches had a significant logistic regression of presence on time-since-fire, patch size, patch isolation, or their interactions. Species with presence related to the interaction between patch isolation and patch size were primarily herbs and small shrubs specializing in rosemary scrub. These results suggest the importance of spatial characteristics of the landscape for population turnover of these species. An incidence-based metapopulation model was used to predict extinction and colonization probabilities of those species with presence in rosemary scrub patches related to the studied spatial variables. This is the first attempt to apply incidence-based metapopulation models to plants. The results showed stronger effects of patch size and patch isolation on extinction probabilities of herbs than on those of woody species. Because of their effect on spatial heterogeneity and habitat availability, fire suppression and habitat destruction may decrease persistence probabilities for these rosemary scrub specialists, many of which are endangered species.     

元江干热河谷植物群落特征及土壤肥力研究

对云南省元江县境内元江河谷山坡上的5种主要植被类型的群落特征、植物多样性现状、植物区系组成以及不同群落土壤理化性质进行了比较研究.结果表明:干热河谷区内,植物群落生活型组成主要以小乔木、灌木和草本植物为主,基本没有高大的乔木树种和大型藤本植物.草本植物生长旺盛,物种多样性和丰富度均较乔灌层高,但均匀度较其低.5种群落之间的相似性程度较低,且各群落均处于相对稳定的状态.各群落中共记录有61个科,144个属,194个物种,其植物区系的泛热带特征比较明显,其中泛热带分布科有31个,占除去广布科以外所有科的77.5%,泛热带分布属有50个,占除去广布属以外所有属的38.2%.蝶形花科Papilionaceae、禾本科Gramineae、大戟科Euphorbiaceae、菊科Compositae、锦葵科Malvaceae等科在元江干热河谷植被中占有极为重要的地位.群落土壤理化性质的研究表明,元江干热河谷各类植被的土壤元素中,除了磷元素极其缺乏以外,大多数处于中等以上水平.土壤肥力状况与植被的生长状况之间关系紧密,其中,土壤肥力最好的是群落结构比较复杂、残存的稀树旱生林.     

On the dynamics of grazing systems in the semi-arid succulent Karoo: The relevance of equilibrium and non-equilibrium concepts to the sustainability of semi-arid pastoral systems

Two long-term mechanistic models of grazing systems in the semi-arid succulent Karoo have been used to study factors that influence vegetation changes, livestock productivity and sustainability of the ecosystem. In this region of low and highly variable rainfall, goats and sheep feed on vegetation comprising perennial shrubs and annuals. A previously published model of the Namaqualand system (the “standard” model) explicitly simulates three guilds of perennial shrubs, a guild of annuals, forage consumption, growth of goats and goat reproductive and survival rates. The model also simulates variable rainfall and predicts that, if no steps are taken to control the goat population, stock numbers will vary widely between years and the population of the different plant guilds will fluctuate. Plots of model output indicate that the system is driven by rainfall. Temporal changes in the relative abundance of each guild vary with different sequences of rainfall having similar long-term mean and variability. A single run of the model may display equilibrial, disequilibrial and threshold behaviour. Thus, the system exhibits complex dynamics. If animal numbers are held constant at the long-term average of variable stock or at the recommended stocking rate then the cover of palatable shrubs decreases and that of toxic plants increases substantially. A “simplified” model based on an aggregated forage variable and equilibrium dynamics is inadequate to describe the behaviour of this system.     

间伐对杉木人工林林下植被多样性及生物量的影响

对间伐了4年的杉木（Cunninghamia lanceolata（Lamb.）Hook.）人工林林下植被的生物量和生物多样性进行了调查和分析。结果表明：林下植被相似系数随着间伐强度增加而增加;间伐显著提高了林下植被的物种丰富度、Simpson指数、Shannon-Weiner指数和生物量（P〈0.05）,而对均匀度指数无显著影响（P〉0.05）;强度和中度间伐显著增加了灌木生物量,而草本生物量在弱度和中度间伐下显著增加（P〈0.05）;3种间伐强度均显著提高草本的物种丰富度、Simpson指数和Shannon-Weiner指数,而灌木的3种指数仅在强和中度间伐下得到显著提高（P〈0.05）。     

Linkages between phenology, pollination, photosynthesis, and reproduction in deciduous forest understory plants

Light availability in the understory of deciduous forests changes drastically within the growing season due to the foliage dynamics of canopy trees. Because flowering phenology, photosynthetic characteristics, and fruiting success respond to such strong seasonality in light availability, we hypothesized that understory plants in such ecosystems should describe distinct phenological groups or syndromes where "syndrome" is defined only as a set of characteristics that co-occur. To identify these phenological syndromes, we studied the flowering phenology, fruit or seed set, and photosynthetic characteristics for 18 perennial understory herbaceous species that differed in reproductive strategy over eight years in a deciduous forest in northern Japan. Three phenological groups emerged from this study: (1) spring bloomers, flowering and fruiting before the completion of canopy closure; (2) early-summer bloomers, flowering during the progress of canopy closure and fruiting after canopy closure; and (3) late-summer bloomers, flowering and fruiting after canopy closure. The spring bloomers had high photosynthetic rates and high fruiting abilities, but the flowering time varied considerably among years due to yearly fluctuations of snowmelt date. Bumble bee-pollinated species of spring bloomers showed variable seed-set success, while fly-pollinated species showed relatively stable seed sets over the years. The early-summer bloomers showed low fruiting abilities irrespective of pollination success, reflecting severe resource limitation with decelerating light availability during fruit development. Although the late-summer bloomers showed low photosynthetic rates under low-light conditions, high fruit-set success was attained if pollination was sufficient. These results support our hypothesis that phenological syndromes may be found in deciduous forest understory plants. Given that reproductive success of bee-pollinated spring bloomers is highly susceptible to seasonal fluctuation, climate change may have its strongest impacts on this group.     

Resistance of the generalist moth Trichoplusia ni (Noctuidae) to a novel chemical defense in the invasive plant Conium maculatum

Summary. Conium maculatum is an apiaceous species native to Eurasia that is highly toxic to vertebrates due to the presence of piperidine alkaloids, including coniine and γ-coniceine. More than 200 years after invading the United States this species remains mostly free from generalist insect herbivores. The presence of novel chemical defenses in the introduced range could provide invasive species with a competitive advantage relative to native plants. The cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni) is a generalist lepidopteran found throughout the US that occasionally feeds on C. maculatum. We evaluated the toxicity of piperidine alkaloids to T. ni and determined putative resistance mechanisms, both behavioral and physiological, that allows this insect to develop successfully on C. maculatum foliage. T. ni larvae raised on diets enriched with coniine and γ-coniceine showed a decrease in consumption and longer development time, but no effects on growth were found at any alkaloid concentration. In a diet choice experiment T. ni larvae showed no avoidance of alkaloid-enriched diets, suggesting that the deterrence produced by alkaloids was related to a post-ingestive metabolic response. The ability of T. ni to consume diets high in alkaloid content could be due to at least three different mechanisms: 1) a decreased consumption rate, 2) efficient excretion of at least 1/3 of ingested alkaloids unmetabolized in frass, and 3) partial detoxification of alkaloids by cytochrome P450 s, as shown by the decreased larval growth in the presence of piperonyl butoxide, a P450 inhibitor. Even though T. ni tolerates C. maculatum alkaloids, the use of this species as a host plant could be ecologically disadvantageous due to prolonged larval growth and thus increased exposure to predators. Novel plant secondary compounds do not guarantee increased resistance to generalist herbivores.     

Searching for synergism: effects of combinations of phenolic compounds and other toxins on oxidative stress in Lymantria dispar caterpillars

Synergistic combinations of plant allelochemicals are commonly believed to increase their effectiveness as defenses against insect herbivores. For example, temperate deciduous trees produce large amounts of phenolic compounds (primarily tannins), but many of these trees also produce smaller amounts of other potentially toxic compounds. This study tested the hypothesis that mixtures of phenolics and other types of toxins produce a greater effect on oxidative stress (a measure of toxicity) than do phenolics alone. Oxidative stress was measured in Lymantria dispar (gypsy moth) larvae as a shift in the redox balance of glutathione (GSH) towards a higher percentage of its oxidized form (glutathione disulfide; GSSG). We began by showing that larvae that ingested ellagitannins and chlorogenic acid (phenolics) contained greatly elevated levels of reactive oxygen species in their midgut contents, but this was not sufficient to shift the redox balance of GSH in their midgut tissues. Therefore, the phenolic compounds were tested in pairwise combinations with juglone (a quinone), rutin, kaempferol, or quercitrin (flavonoids), quinine, berberine, gramine, or glaucine (alkaloids), and soy or Quillaja saponins. When each of these allelochemical combinations was treated on hybrid poplar (Populus tremula × P. alba) leaves and consumed by L. dispar larvae for a 2-day period, none significantly shifted the redox balance of GSH. GSH levels were induced by the combination of phenolics with an alkaloid and a saponin, suggesting that a “cocktail” of allelochemicals might produce a more effective plant defense. GSH levels were also found to increase with larval age, both within and between instars. Increased levels of GSH may help explain the greater resistance of late-instar than early-instar larvae to plant defenses. Overall, the results of this study do not support the hypothesis that the combined effects of phenolic compounds and other toxins in sugar maple (Acer saccharum) leaves produce a synergistic increase in oxidative stress in L. dispar larvae. Further work is needed to test the general hypothesis that the allelochemical diversity in plants functions, in part, to produce synergistic toxicological effects in insect herbivores.     

Constitutive or induced defences - how does <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptus globulus</Emphasis> defend itself from larval feeding?

Summary. Following herbivory, induced responses involving plant secondary metabolites have been reported in a number of tree species. Although a wide range of plant secondary metabolites appear to operate as constitutive plant defences in trees belonging to the Eucalyptus genus, no induced responses have as yet been reported following foliar-chewing insect damage. We empirically tested whether branch defoliation (artificial and larval) of 2-year-old Eucalyptus globulus Labill. trees altered the abundance of specific plant secondary metabolites immediately (3 months after initial larval feeding) and 8 months after the cessation of larval feeding. Metabolites assayed, included essential oils, polyphenolic groups and foliar wax compounds and in all cases their abundance was not significantly altered by defoliation. However, the level of foliar tannins after 3 months of larval feeding did display a trend that suggested elevated levels as the result of defoliation, though this trend was not evident 8 months later, indicating that, if real, the response was a rapid and not a delayed induced response. The level of foliar tannins was also negatively correlated to both average larval survival and average percentage branch defoliation, suggesting that foliar tannins may operate as toxins and/or anti-feedants to M. privata larval feeding.     

Cooperative breeding and immunity: a comparative study of PHA response in African birds

Cooperatively breeding birds might be expected to suffer from higher costs of parasitism than pair-breeding species because of two aspects of their ecology which should facilitate horizontal transmission and possibly select for higher parasite virulence: first, they interact regularly with more individuals than pair-breeding species, and second, these individuals are commonly close relatives that could share similar resistance alleles. This hypothesis predicts that cooperative breeders should invest relatively more in immune defence than closely related species which breed in pairs. I tested this prediction comparatively in African birds by examining the response of the immune system to the mitogenic lectin, phytoahemagglutinin (PHA response) in relation to cooperative breeding. Among 66 species, of which 18 breed cooperatively, PHA response was significantly higher in cooperatively breeding species. This association appeared not to be confounded by body size, clutch size, nest position, coloniality or similarity owing to common phylogenetic descent. These results suggest that cooperatively breeding birds may have been selected to invest more than pair-breeders in defences against parasites. If so, then additional costs of philopatry and helping behaviour might be imposed on breeders, helpers and offspring.     

Episodic death across species of desert shrubs

Extreme events shape population and community trajectories. We report episodic mortality across common species of thousands of long-lived perennials individually tagged and monitored for 20 years in the Colorado Desert of California following severe regional drought. Demographic records from 1984 to 2004 show 15 years of virtual stasis in populations of adult shrubs and cacti, punctuated by a 55-100% die-off of six of the seven most common perennial species. In this episode, adults that experienced reduced growth in a lesser drought during 1984-1989 failed to survive the drought of 2002. The significance of this event is potentially profound because population dynamics of long-lived plants can be far more strongly affected by deaths of adults, which in deserts potentially live for centuries, than by seedling births or deaths. Differential mortality and rates of recovery during and after extreme climatic events quite likely determine the species composition of plant and associated animal communities for at least decades. The die-off recorded in this closely monitored community provides a unique window into the mechanics of this process of species decline and replacement.     

都江堰灵岩山3种人工林优势物种叶片的有机组分特征

叶片的有机组分特征不仅是植物光合产物分配策略和养分回收的重要参数,而且是衡量凋落叶分解难易程度的重要指标.为探究不同植物群落叶片间有机组分的差异,以华西雨屏区人工林的优势乔、灌、草植物作为对象,收集其成熟叶及凋落叶,研究其水溶性组分(water soluble component,WSC)、有机溶性组分(organic...     

Global biodiversity patterns of benthic marine algae

Species richness patterns are remarkably similar across many marine taxa, yet explanations of how such patterns are generated and maintained are conflicting. I use published occurrence data to identify previously masked latitudinal and longitudinal diversity gradients for all genera of benthic marine macroalgae and for species in the Order Bryopsidales. I also quantify the size, location, and overlap of macroalgal geographic ranges to determine how the observed richness patterns are generated. Algal genera exhibit an inverse latitudinal gradient, with biodiversity hotspots in temperate regions, while bryopsidalean species reach peak diversity in the tropics. The geographic distribution of range locations results in distinct clusters of range mid-points. In particular, widespread taxa are centered within tight latitudinal and longitudinal bands in the middle of the Indo-Pacific and Atlantic Oceans while small-ranged taxa are clustered in peripheral locations, suggesting that variation in speciation and extinction are important drivers of algal diversity patterns. Hypotheses about factors that regulate diversity contain underlying assumptions about the size and location of geographic ranges, in addition to predictions as to why species numbers will differ among regions. Yet these assumptions are rarely considered in assessing the validity of the prevailing hypotheses. I assess a suite of hypotheses, suggested to explain patterns of marine diversity, by comparing algal-richness patterns in combination with the size and location of algal geographic ranges, to the richness and range locations predicted by these hypotheses. In particular, the results implicate habitat areas and ocean currents as the most plausible drivers of observed diversity patterns.     

Differential responses of vertebrate and invertebrate herbivores to traits of New Zealand subalpine shrubs

Plant traits are influenced by herbivore diet selection, but little is known about how traits are affected by different types of herbivores. We related eight traits of 27 subalpine shrub species in South Island, New Zealand, to damage of these shrubs by introduced red deer (Cervus elaphus) and native invertebrate herbivores using phylogenetically explicit modeling. Deer preferentially consumed species that grew quickly, were low in foliar tannins, or had high leaf area per unit mass. However, these traits did not trade off against each other; rather, they could be related to different multivariate defense strategies. Although the proportion of leaves damaged by leaf-chewing invertebrates also increased with stem growth, invertebrates did not damage the same fast growing species as those preferred by deer. Other traits may also be important in determining herbivore preferences, as suggested by the high proportion of variation in herbivory explained by phylogeny. Last, we found that the composition of invertebrate herbivore communities was more similar among closely related shrubs, and consequently, the range of invertebrate-plant associations may change if introduced deer shift plant composition toward slow-growing species. Overall, our results demonstrate the importance of herbivore type and coevolved interactions for the adaptive significance of plant traits.