Receptor model-based source apportionment of particulate pollution in Hyderabad, India

Air quality in Hyderabad, India, often exceeds the national ambient air quality standards, especially for particulate matter (PM), which, in 2010, averaged 82.2?±?24.6, 96.2?±?12.1, and 64.3?±?21.2 μg/m³ of PM₁₀, at commercial, industrial, and residential monitoring stations, respectively, exceeding the national ambient standard of 60 μg/m³. In 2005, following an ordinance passed by the Supreme Court of India, a source apportionment study was conducted to quantify source contributions to PM pollution in Hyderabad, using the chemical mass balance (version 8.2) receptor model for 180 ambient samples collected at three stations for PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 size fractions for three seasons. The receptor modeling results indicated that the PM₁₀ pollution is dominated by the direct vehicular exhaust and road dust (more than 60 %). PM_2.5 with higher propensity to enter the human respiratory tracks, has mixed sources of vehicle exhaust, industrial coal combustion, garbage burning, and secondary PM. In order to improve the air quality in the city, these findings demonstrate the need to control emissions from all known sources and particularly focus on the low-hanging fruits like road dust and waste burning, while the technological and institutional advancements in the transport and industrial sectors are bound to enhance efficiencies. Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board utilized these results to prepare an air pollution control action plan for the city.     

Evaluation of applicability of the Sartorius Airport MD8 sampler for detection of Bacillus endospores in indoor air

This study was designed to evaluate the measuring range and lowest limit of detection of Bacillus endospores in the ambient room air when the Sartorius MD8 sampler, and two different culture methods for bacterial enumeration were used. Different concentrations of bioaerosol were generated inside the test chamber filled with either the high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)-filtered air or with the ambient room air. The detection of endospores in the HEPA-filtered air was achievable: (1) when they were aerosolized at a concentration above 7.56?×?10³ CFU/m³ and analyzed with spread plate method, and (2) when they were aerosolized at a concentration above 4.00?×?10² CFU/m³ and analyzed with pour plate method. The detection of endospores in the ambient room air was possible: (1) when they were aerosolized at a concentration above 9.1?×?10³ CFU/m³ and analyzed with spread plate method, and (2) when they were aerosolized at a concentration above 5.6?×?10² CFU/m³ and analyzed with pour plate method. The microorganisms present in the ambient room air interfere with precise quantification of Bacillus endospores when their concentration is relatively low. The results of this study may be helpful in critical assessment of the results obtained from monitoring the air for bacterial endospores.     

Spatial and temporal estimation of soil loss for the sustainable management of a wet semi-arid watershed cluster

The ungauged wet semi-arid watershed cluster, Seethagondi, lies in the Adilabad district of Telangana in India and is prone to severe erosion and water scarcity. The runoff and soil loss data at watershed, catchment, and field level are necessary for planning soil and water conservation interventions. In this study, an attempt was made to develop a spatial soil loss estimation model for Seethagondi cluster using RUSLE coupled with ARCGIS and was used to estimate the soil loss spatially and temporally. The daily rainfall data of Aphrodite for the period from 1951 to 2007 was used, and the annual rainfall varied from 508 to 1351 mm with a mean annual rainfall of 950 mm and a mean erosivity of 6789 MJ mm ha^?1 h^?1 year^?1. Considerable variation in land use land cover especially in crop land and fallow land was observed during normal and drought years, and corresponding variation in the erosivity, C factor, and soil loss was also noted. The mean value of C factor derived from NDVI for crop land was 0.42 and 0.22 in normal year and drought years, respectively. The topography is undulating and major portion of the cluster has slope less than 10°, and 85.3 % of the cluster has soil loss below 20 t ha^?1 year^?1. The soil loss from crop land varied from 2.9 to 3.6 t ha^?1 year^?1 in low rainfall years to 31.8 to 34.7 t ha^?1 year^?1 in high rainfall years with a mean annual soil loss of 12.2 t ha^?1 year^?1. The soil loss from crop land was higher in the month of August with an annual soil loss of 13.1 and 2.9 t ha^?1 year^?1 in normal and drought year, respectively. Based on the soil loss in a normal year, the interventions recommended for 85.3 % of area of the watershed includes agronomic measures such as contour cultivation, graded bunds, strip cropping, mixed cropping, crop rotations, mulching, summer plowing, vegetative bunds, agri-horticultural system, and management practices such as broad bed furrow, raised sunken beds, and harvesting available water using farm ponds and percolation tanks. This methodology can be adopted for estimating the soil loss from similar ungauged watersheds with deficient data and for planning suitable soil and water conservation interventions for the sustainable management of the watersheds.     

Submicron particle characteristics of atmospheres in a long highway tunnel

This study used a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS) to measure and categorize submicron atmospheric particles in the 14–737-nm size range for ambient and urban roadside air and for air in the Hsuehshan Tunnel (12.9 km), Taiwan. Principal component analysis, traffic flow, and particle size distributions were used to identify the emission characteristics of light-duty vehicles (LDV) with the SMPS data. In the Hsuehshan Tunnel, the particle size from the majority of emissions discharged by LDV is approximately 20–60 nm, and the maximum particle number can reach up to 2.5?×?10⁵. In contrast, submicron particle size distribution for urban roadsides is mostly 14–200 nm, and the maximum particle number is approximately 4?×?10⁴ with the particle number for most particle sizes being below 1,200. The submicron particle size distribution at the ambient air station was unimodal with a mode sizes at 30–50 nm with the maximum particle number of 3,000.     

Emissions of SO2, NO x and particulates from a pipe manufacturing plant and prediction of impact on air quality

Integrated pipe manufacturing industry is operation intensive and has significant air pollution potential especially when it is equipped with a captive power production facility. Emissions of SO₂, NO _x , and particulate matter (PM) were estimated from the stationary sources in a state-of-the-art pipe manufacturing plant in India. Major air polluting units like blast furnace, ductile iron spun pipe facility, and captive power production facility were selected for stack gas monitoring. Subsequently, ambient air quality modeling was undertaken to predict ground-level concentrations of the selected air pollutants using Industrial Source Complex (ISC 3) model. Emissions of SO₂, NO _x , and particulate matter from the stationary sources in selected facilities ranged from 0.02 to 16.5, 0.03 to 93.3, and 0.09 to 48.3 kg h^???1, respectively. Concentration of SO₂ and NO _x in stack gas of 1,180-kVA (1 KW = 1.25 kVA) diesel generator exceeded the upper safe limits prescribed by the State Pollution Control Board, while concentrations of the same from all other units were within the prescribed limits. Particulate emission was highest from the barrel grinding operation, where grinding of the manufactured pipes is undertaken for giving the final shape. Particulate emission was also high from dedusting operation where coal dust is handled. Air quality modeling indicated that maximum possible ground-level concentration of PM, SO₂, and NO _x were to the tune of 13, 3, and 18 μg/m³, respectively, which are within the prescribed limits for ambient air given by the Central Pollution Control Board.     

Safety evaluation of flubendiamide and its metabolites on cabbage and persistence in soil in different agroclimatic zones of India

Supervised field trials following good agricultural practices were conducted at the research farms of four agricultural universities located at four different agroclimatic zones of India to evaluate the persistence and dissipation of flubendiamide and its metabolite, des-iodo flubendiamide, on cabbage. Two spray applications of flubendiamide 480 SC of standard and double dose at the rate of 24 and 48 g a.i. ha^?1 were given to the crop at a 15-day interval, and the residues of flubendiamide 2 h after spray were found in the range of 0.107–0.33 and 0.20–0.49 mg kg^?1 at respective doses. Residue of des-iodo flubendiamide was not detected in any cabbage sample during study period. No residues were found in the soil samples collected from all treated fields after 15 days of application. On the basis of data generated under All India Network Project on Pesticide Residues, a preharvest interval (PHI) of 10 days has been recommended, and the flubendiamide 480 SC has been registered for its use on cabbage by Central Insecticide Board and Registration Committee, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. The maximum residue limit (MRL) of flubendiamide on cabbage has been fixed by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, under Food Safety Standard Authority of India as 0.05 μg/g after its risk assessment.     

Bioaerosols as contributors to poor air quality in Taichung City, Taiwan

Bioaerosols are a type of suspended sediments that contribute to poor air quality in Taiwan. Bioaerosols include allergens such as: fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, arthropods and protozoa, as well as microbial products such as mycotoxins, endotoxins and glucans. When allergens and microbial products are suspended in the air, local air quality will be influenced adversely. In addition, when the particle size is small enough to pass through the respiratory tract entering the human body, the health of the local population is also threatened. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to attempt to understand the concentration and types of bacteria and the bacteria numbers for various particle size ranges during a study period of June 2005 to February 2006 in Taichung City, Central Taiwan. The results indicate that the total average bacterial concentration by using NA medium incubated for 48 h were 8.0 × 10², 1.4 × 10³, 2.4 × 10³ and 1.3 × 10³, 1.9 × 10³, 3.5 × 10³ cfu/m³ for CMES, TRIPS and RFS sampling sites during the daytime and nighttime period of June 2005 to February 2006. Moreover, the total average bacterial concentration by using R₂A medium incubated for 48 h were 8.5 × 10², 1.5 × 10³, 2.2 × 10³ and 1.2 × 10³, 1.7 × 10³, 2.5 × 10³ cfu/m³ for CMES, TRIPS and RFS sampling sites the daytime and nighttime during the same sampling period. The total average bacteria concentration was the same in either NA or R₂A medium for the same sampling times or sites. The total average bacterial concentration was higher in daytime period than that of nighttime period for CMES, TRIPS and RFS sampling sites. The high average bacterial concentration was found in the particle size range of 0.53–0.71 mm (average bioaerosol size was in the range of 2.1–4.7 μm) for each sampling site. Also, 20 kinds of bacteria exceeded levels for each sampling site and were classified as according to shape: rod, coccus and filamentous.     

Density assessment and mapping of microorganisms around a biocomposting plant in Sanandaj,Iran

Exposure to microorganisms can cause various diseases or exacerbate the excitatory responses, inflammation, dry cough and shortness of breath, reduced lung function, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and allergic response or allergic immune. The aim of the present study was to investigate the density of microorganisms around the air of processing facilities of a biocomposting plant. Each experiment was carried out according to ASTM E884-82 (2001) method. The samples were collected from inhaled air in four locations of the plant, which had a high traffic of workers and employees, including screen, conveyor belt, aerated compost pile, and static compost pile. The sampling was repeated five times for each location selected. The wind speed and its direction were measured using an anemometer. Temperature and humidity were also recorded at the time of sampling. The multistage impactor used for sampling was equipped with a solidified medium (agar) and a pump (with a flow rate of 28.3 l/m) for passing air through the media. It was found that the mean density of total bacteria was >1.7 × 10³ cfu/m³ in the study area. Moreover, the mean densities of fungi, intestinal bacteria (Klebsiella), and Staphylococcus aureus were 5.9 × 10³, 3.3 × 10³, and 4.1 × 10³ cfu/m³, respectively. In conclusion, according to the findings, the density of bacteria and fungi per cubic meter of air in the samples collected around the processing facilities of the biocomposting plant in Sanandaj City was higher than the microbial standard for inhaled air.     

Change of air quality and its impact on atmospheric visibility in central-western Pearl River Delta

Ambient air quality data, including atmospheric visibility, of Foshan city, a highly polluted city in the Pearl River Delta (PRD), and data obtained by the On-line Air Pollutant Exhaust Monitoring Network (OAPEMN), recently established by the National Emission Monitoring and Control Network for major industrial enterprises, were analyzed and are reported here for the first time, revealing the change in air pollution patterns and its impact on visibility degradation in the last decade. Reduced visibility of less than 8 km (after elimination of rainy and foggy periods) was found 22% of the time from 1998 to 2008, accompanied by elevated levels of pollutants, especially SO₂ and PM₁₀, in comparison with that of other developed cities. However, PM₁₀ showed a steady decreasing trend (0.004 mg m^???3 year^???1) during 2001?C2008, in contrast to the noticeable increase in ambient NO₂ concentrations from ~0.020 mg m^???3 before 2005 to above 0.050 mg m^???3 afterward. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the percentage of reduced visibility strongly correlated with PM₁₀ concentration, suggesting that visibility degradation was directly proportional to the loading of particles. Moreover, the fairly significant correlation between reduced visibility and NO₂ concentration also implied that the impact of primary emissions of NO₂ and enhanced secondary pollutants, formed via photochemical processes in the atmosphere, could not be ignored. The decreased PM₁₀ levels were obviously the predominant factor for the improvement in visibility (5.0% per 0.01 mg m^???3) and were likely due to the implementation of stricter air pollution control measures for industrial exhaust, which also resulted in reduced SO₂ pollution levels in the recent 2 years. In particular, the OAPEMN records showed an overall enhanced SO₂ removal by 64% in major industrial sectors. The continuous increase in road traffic and lack of efficient NO _x control strategies in the PRD region, however, caused an increase in ambient NO₂ concentrations.     

Indirect prediction of surface ozone concentration by plant growth responses in East Asia using mini-open top chambers

We developed small and mobile open top chambers (mini-OTC) measuring 0.6 m (W)?×?0.6 m (D)?×?1.2 m (H) with an air duct of 0.6 m (W)?×?0.23 m (D)?×?1.2 m (H). The air duct can be filled with activated charcoal to blow charcoal filtered air (CF) into the chamber, as opposed to non-filtered ambient air (NF). Ozone sensitive radish Raphanus sativus cv. Red Chime and rosette pakchoi Brassica campestris var. rosularis cv. ATU171 were exposed to NF and CF in mini-OTCs at different locations in East Asia. A total of 29 exposure experiments were conducted at nine locations, Shanghai, China, Ha Noi, Vietnam, Lampang, Phitsanulok and Pathumtani, Thailand, and Hiratsuka, Kisai, Abiko and Akagi, Japan. Although no significant relationships between the mean concentrations of ambient O₃ during the experimental period and the growth responses were observed for either species, multiple linear regression analysis suggested a good relationship between the biomass responses in each species and the O₃ concentration, temperature, and relative humidity. The cumulative daily mean O₃ (ppb/day) could be indirectly predicted by NF/CF based on the dry weight ratio of biomass, mean air temperature, and relative air humidity.     

Modeling of Ecological Footprint and Climate Change Impacts on Food Security of the Hill Tracts of Chittagong in Bangladesh

This paper presents an integrated and dynamic model for the management of the uplands of the Hill Tracts of Chittagong to predict food security and environmental loading for gradual transition of shifting agriculture land into horticulture crops and teak plantation, and crop land into tobacco cultivation. Food security status for gradual transmission of shifting agriculture land into horticulture crops and teak plantation, and crop land into tobacco cultivation is the best option for food security, but this causes the highest environmental loading resulting from tobacco cultivation. Considering both food security and environmental degradation in terms of ecological footprint, the best option is gradual transition of shifting agriculture land into horticulture crops which provides moderate increase in the food security with a relatively lower environmental degradation in terms of ecological footprint. Crop growth model InfoCrop was used to predict the climate change impacts on rice and maize production in the uplands of the Hill Tracts of Chittagong. Climate change impacts on the yields of rice and maize of three treatments of temperature, carbon dioxide and rainfall change (+0 °C, +0 ppm and +0 % rainfall), (+2 °C, +50 ppm and 20 % rainfall) and (+2 °C, +100 ppm and 30 % rainfall) were assessed. The yield of rice decreases for treatment 2, but it increases for treatment 3. The yield of maize increases for treatments 2 and 3 since maize is a C₄ plant. There is almost no change in food security at upazila (sub-district) level for the historical climate change scenario, but there is small change in the food security at upazila levels for IPCC climate change scenario.     

Abundance pattern of wedge clam Donax cuneatus (L.) in different spatial scale in the vicinity of a coastal nuclear power plant

Impact of thermal discharge from a coastal power station (Madras Atomic Power Station, southeast coast of India) on the spatial variability of Donax cuneatus abundance was assessed to determine the impact boundary. Totally, 20 sites were selected both on south and north side in increasing spatial scale from mixing zone, 12 locations were selected toward south side at a distance from 0 (near mixing point) to 2,000 m and eight location were selected toward north from the effluent mixing zone. Mean water temperature along the coast ranged from 29.1 ±0.15°C to 31.2 ± 0.15°C. Total organic carbon content in the sediment ranged from 0.27% to 0.70%. D. cuneatus population on the swash zone was ranged between 1.3 ± 1.5 and 88.3 ± 9.6 m^???2. Meager population of wedge clam was observed up to 100 m (S100) south from mixing point and abundance gradually increased in different spatial scale. Comparatively high abundance was observed from S400 and reached maximum at S1000 (64.0 ± 3.6 m^???2). Similar pattern was observed on north side too but less abundance was observed only up to 80 m (N80). Maximum abundance was observed at control location C3-N500 (88.3 ± 9.6 m^???2). Forty meters on either side of discharge point was highly impacted, 80 to 100 m toward plume flow (south) was moderately impacted, and 80 m north of mixing point also witnessed moderate impact. After 100 m (N100), north was not affected by effluents, whereas between 100 and 400 m, south was influenced slightly. Multivariate clustering pattern on the environmental variables of all sampling locations and population trend of D. cuneatus at those stations showed similarity. Present investigation unambiguously showed that the abundance pattern of D. cuneatus on the sandy beach of east coast of Kalpakkam is not governed by single major factor but due to the result of multiple interacting factors. The population size of the wedge clam with reference to the effect of power plant effluents and other features of habitats of the beach ecosystem are also discussed.     

Assessment of elemental concentrations in the urban air (case study: Tehran city)

Tehran is one of the megacities of the world with a population of over eight million. Its air is highly polluted mainly due to the suspended particulate matters, which encompasses a wide spectrum of chemical elements. These elements based on their type, size, and impact on the life cycle have various environmental and heath risks. In this research, the neutron activation method is used to determine the concentration levels of Al, Ba, Fe, Mg, and V in the urban air. Thus, two districts of Tehran with different characteristics are selected. District 21 includes much of the industries located in Tehran metropolitan and is considered as an industrial area. In contrast, district 22 lacks any significant industrial activity. It is a newly established and expanding district adjacent to district 21 with a great deal of constructional activities. For the measurement of the suspended particulate matters in the air, the various sections of the aforesaid districts with industrial, residential, heavily congested traffic, residential/commercial, residential/heavily congested traffic, and residential/industrial classifications were identified. Subsequently, 24 sampling stations were selected. The sampling of the suspended particulate matters was conducted with the aid of a high volume pump containing 125 mm cellulose filters in two different time intervals. After completion of the sampling process, the samples were prepared and sent to the research reactor of the Iran Nuclear Energy Organization for Neutron Activation. During the next steps, the radiations emitted from the samples were registered, the radiation curves were plotted, and the amounts of the trace elements were determined. As a result, the average concentration levels of Al, Ba, Fe, Mg, and V were identified to be 3.301140, 2.273658 × 10, 4.0681696 × 10^???1, 3.5525475 × 10^???1, and 3.04075 × 10^???2 μg/m³, respectively. Moreover, the emission sources of the aforesaid elements into the air were identified. The concentration levels of these elements in the industrial and heavily congested traffic sections were higher. Finally, it was concluded that the statistical analysis of these elements presents a meaningful correlation among them.     

An implementation plan for using biological indicators to improve assessment of water quality in Thailand

The present study showed a possibility to use phenotypic and proteomic responses in rice plants as an in vivo biomarker to detect higher concentrations of ambient ozone (O₃). The investigation was done on two cultivars of Indian rice using open top chambers ventilated with charcoal filtered air, ambient air, ambient air with 10 ppb O₃ exposure and ambient air with 20 ppb O₃ exposure at a rural site of Varanasi, India. Results showed that the magnitude of O₃ induced specific type of foliar injury directly depends on the duration and concentration of O₃ exposure. Even the internal protein profile of injured and normal leaf demonstrated a differential expression, which directly indicates towards the molecular basis of plant’s response against O₃.     

Emissions of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) to air from waste incinerators and high thermal processes in India

This study investigated dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls in gasses emitted from waste incinerators and thermal processes in central and western parts of India. The concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDDs/DFs) ranged from 0.0070 to 26.8140 ng toxicity equivalent (TEQ)/Nm³, and those of dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) ranged from 0.0001?×?10^?1 to 0.0295 ng TEQ/Nm³. The characteristics of mean PCDD/F I-TEQ concentration and congener profiles were studied over all the samples of air. In particular, a pattern consisting of a low proportion of dioxin-like PCBs and high proportion of PCDDs/DFs was common for all the samples from incinerators and high-temperature processes.     

Particulate matter concentration in ambient air and its effects on lung functions among residents in the National Capital Region, India

The World Health Organization has estimated that air pollution is responsible for 1.4 % of all deaths and 0.8 % of disability-adjusted life years. NOIDA, located at the National Capital Region, India, was declared as one of the critically air-polluted areas by the Central Pollution Control Board of the Government of India. Studies on the relationship of reduction in lung functions of residents living in areas with higher concentrations of particulate matter (PM) in ambient air were inconclusive since the subjects of most of the studies are hospital admission cases. Very few studies, including one from India, have shown the relationship of PM concentration and its effects of lung functions in the same location. Hence, a cross-sectional study was undertaken to study the effect of particulate matter concentration in ambient air on the lung functions of residents living in a critically air-polluted area in India. PM concentrations in ambient air (PM_1, PM_2.5) were monitored at residential locations and identified locations with higher (NOIDA) and lower concentrations (Gurgaon). Lung function tests (FEV₁, PEFR) were conducted using a spirometer in 757 residents. Both air monitoring and lung function tests were conducted on the same day. Significant negative linear relationship exists between higher concentrations of PM₁ with reduced FEV₁ and increased concentrations of PM_2.5 with reduced PEFR and FEV₁. The study shows that reductions in lung functions (PEFR and FEV₁) can be attributed to higher particulate matter concentrations in ambient air. Decline in airflow obstruction in subjects exposed to high PM concentrations can be attributed to the fibrogenic response and associated airway wall remodeling. The study suggests the intervention of policy makers and stake holders to take necessary steps to reduce the emissions of PM concentrations, especially PM_1, PM_2.5, which can lead to serious respiratory health concerns in residents.     

Land use pattern, socio-economic development, and assessment of their impacts on ecosystem service value: study on natural wetlands distribution area (NWDA) in Fuzhou city, southeastern China

This paper quantifies the allocation of ecosystem services value (ESV) associated with land use pattern and qualitatively examined impacts of land use changes and socio-economic factors on spatiotemporal variation of ESV in the Natural Wetland Distribution Area (NWDA), Fuzhou city, China. The results showed that total ESV of the study area decreased from 4,332.16?×?10⁶ RMB Yuan in 1989 to 3,697.42?×?10⁶ RMB Yuan in 2009, mainly due to the remarkable decreases in cropland (decreased by 55.3 %) and wetland (decreased by 74.2 %). Forest, water, and wetland played major roles in providing ecosystem services, accounting for over 90 % of the total ESV. Based on time series Landsat TM/ETM+ imagery, geographic information system, and historical data, analysis of the spatiotemporal variation of ESV from 1989 to 2009 was performed. It indicated that rapid expansion of urban areas along the Minjiang River resulted in significant changes in land use types, leading to a dramatic decline in ecosystem services. Meanwhile, because of land scarcity and unique ecosystem functions, the emergency of wetland and cropland protection in built-up area has become an urgent task of local authorities to the local government. Furthermore, there was still a significant negative correlation between ESV of cropland and wetland and the GDP. The results suggest that future planning of land use pattern should control encroachment of urban areas into cropland and wetland in addition to scientific and rational policies towards minimizing the adverse effects of urbanization.     

Post-classification comparison of land cover using multitemporal Landsat and ASTER imagery: the case of Kahramanmaraş, Turkey

This study assessed land cover (LC) changes in Kahramanmara? (K.Mara?) and its environs by using multitemporal Landsat and ASTER imagery, respectively belong to 1989, 2000 and 2004. A priori defined nine land cover classes in the classification scheme were urban and built-up, forest, sparsely vegetated areas, grassland, vegetated stream beds, unvegetated stream beds, bare areas, crop fields, and water bodies. Individual classifications were employed using the combination of both unsupervised and supervised classification methods. Iterative Self Organizing Data Analysis (ISODATA) was used to reduce spectral variation in the scenes arising from complex pattern of crop fields. Maximum Likelihood classifier was used in the LC classification of the individual images. Image pairs of consecutive dates were compared by overlaying the thematic LC maps and cross-tabulating the LC statistics. Urbanization and expansion of agriculture were the major reasons for the dramatic LC conversions. The amount of conversion from crop fields to water occurred as large as 927.67 ha, accounting for 73% of the total land-to-water conversion. Conversions to agriculture have mainly been occurred from grasslands and sparsely vegetated areas as large as 1,314.95 and 1,325.84 ha, respectively. Urban coverage doubled in this period as a result of 1,443.45 ha of increase. Urban area increased in the second period from 2,920 to 3,526 ha. Conversions to agriculture occurred at high amounts. A total of 1,075.79 ha area changed from sparsely vegetated areas to crop fields. A landscape-level environmental monitoring scheme based on satellite remote sensing was proposed for effective environmental resource management.     

Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus budget in scampi (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) culture ponds

Experiments were conducted for the study of nutrient budget in ten farmer's ponds (0.2–0.5 ha) in Orissa, India with a mean water depth of 1.0–1.2 m. Scampi (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) were stocked in these ponds at stocking density of 3.75–5.0/m². The average initial body weight of scampi was 0.02 mg. The culture period was for 4 months. Feed was the main input. Total feed applied to these ponds ranged from 945 to 2261 kg pond/cycle (crop). The feed conversion ratio varied 1.65 to 1.78. In addition to feed, rice straw, urea, and single super phosphate were applied to these ponds in small amounts for plankton production. At harvest time, the average weight of scampi varied from 60–90 g. The budget showed that feed was the major input of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and carbon in these ponds. The inorganic fertilizer (urea and single super phosphate), organic fertilizer (rice straw and yeast extract), and inlet water, either from the initial fills or from rainwater, were the source of all other N, P, and organic carbon (OC) to these ponds. Total N applied to these ponds through all these inputs ranged from 44.45 to 103.98 kg N per crop, 12.23 to 28.79 kg P per crop, and from 381.54 to 905.22 kg OC per crop, respectively. Among all the inputs, feed alone accounted for 95.34 % N, 97.98 % P, and 94.27 % OC, respectively. Recovery of 16.34 to 38.66 kg N (average 29.27 kg), 1.28 to 3.02 kg P (average 2.29 kg), and 63.21 to 149.51 kg OC (average 113.20 kg), respectively, by the scampi harvest were observed in these ponds. Thus, harvest of scampi accounted for recovery of 35.18 to 39.01 (average 36.85 %) of added N, 10.09 to 10.97 (average 10.44 %) of added P, and 7.57 to 17.12 (average 16.34 %) of added OC, respectively.     

PM10 in the ambient air of Chandrapur coal mine and its comparison with other environments

This study compares the ambient air particulate matter (PM10) data of 15 different coal mine environments. For most of these mine environments, the monitoring was carried out by different researchers using respirable dust sampler (RDS) that separates PM10 by centrifugal inertial separation. At two sites — Padmapur and Ghugus (Chandrapur, Maharashtra, India) — mass inertial impaction-based sampler was used for PM10 monitoring. It is observed that the spatiotemporal average value of ambient air PM10 monitored using mass inertial impactor reports relatively higher values (240–372 μg/m³) compared to those monitored using RDS (<227 μg/m³). In order to realize the severity of mine area pollution, it is compared with PM10 values found in an urban area (Delhi, India). It is found that PM10 values in Delhi (using mass inertial impactor) are much higher (300–400 μg/m³) than those reported for the mine environment. The data seems to indicate that the mine environment is relatively cleaner than urban air and therefore raises doubt about the appropriateness of using either mass impactor or RDS for PM10 sampling.