Water quality monitoring using remote sensing in support of the EU water framework directive (WFD): A case study in the Gulf of Finland

Water quality monitoring using remote sensing has been studied in Finland for many years. But there are still few discussions on water quality monitoring using remote sensing technology in support of water policy and legislation in Finland under the WFD. In this study, we present water quality monitoring using remote sensing in the Gulf of Finland, and focus on the spatial distribution of water quality information from satellite-based observations in support of water policy by a case study of nitrate concentrations in surface waters. In addition, we briefly describe instruments using a system of river basin districts (RBD), highlighting the importance of integrated water resources and river-basin management in the WFD, and discuss the role of water quality monitoring using remote sensing in the implementation of water policy in Finland under the WFD.     

Diversity of cyanobacterial phylotypes in a Mediterranean drinking water reservoir (Marathonas, Greece)

The structure of the cyanobacterial community in a large drinking water reservoir (Marathonas, Greece) was investigated in October 2007 and September 2008. Cyanobacteria-specific primers were used for the PCR amplification of cyanobacterial 16S rDNAs from three water column sites and the water collection tank. In total, 199 clones were sequenced representing 52 unique cyanobacterial, including chloroplast-related, and 11 non-cyanobacterial phylotypes. All cyanobacterial phylotypes belonged to the order Chroococcales. Cluster analysis showed that the cyanobacterial communities in 2007 in the three water column sites showed high similarity between the stations and low diversity (H?=?1.17???1.44), due to the occurring common phylotypes, while all sites in 2008 had very low similarities between them and higher diversity (H?=?1.56???2.40). Some of the most abundant phylotypes were closely related (>98%) to members of the genus Gloeocapsa and a potentially toxin-producing strain of Microcystis aeruginosa. The non-cyanobacterial phylotypes were either unaffiliated or belonged to the Verrucomicrobia, and were related with sequences originating from lake water habitats.     

Bioluminescent yeast estrogen assay (BLYES) as a sensitive tool to monitor surface and drinking water for estrogenicity

Estrogenic Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) are a concern due to their ubiquity and recognized adverse effects to humans and wildlife. Methods to assess exposure to and associated risks of their presence in aquatic environment are still under development. The aim of this work is to assess estrogenicity of raw and treated waters with different degrees of pollution. Chemical analyses of selected EDCs were performed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, and estrogenic activity was evaluated using in vitro bioluminescent yeast estrogen assay (BLYES). Most raw water samples (18/20) presented at least one EDC and 16 rendered positive in BLYES. When EDCs were detected, the bioassay usually provided a positive response, except when only bisphenol A was detected at low concentrations. The highest values of estrogenic activity were detected in the most polluted sites. The maximum estrogenic activity observed was 8.7 ng equiv. of E2 L(-1). We compared potencies observed in the bioassay to the relative potency of target compounds and their concentrations failed to fully explain the biological response. This indicates that bioassay is more sensitive than the chemical approach either detecting estrogenic target compounds at lower concentrations, other non-target compounds or even synergistic effects, which should be considered on further investigations. We have not detected either estrogenic activity or estrogenic compounds in drinking water. BLYES showed good sensitivity with a detection limit of 0.1 ng equiv. E2 L(-1) and it seems to be a suitable tool for water monitoring.     

Stagnant surface water bodies (SSWBs) as an alternative water resource for the Chittagong metropolitan area of Bangladesh: physicochemical characterization in terms of water quality indices

The concern over ensuing freshwater scarcity has forced the developing countries to delve for alternative water resources. In this study, we examined the potential of stagnant surface water bodies (SSWBs) as alternative freshwater resources in the densely populated Chittagong metropolitan area (CMPA) of Bangladesh??where there is an acute shortage of urban freshwater supply. Water samples were collected at 1-month intervals for a period of 1 year from 12 stations distributed over the whole metropolis. Samples were analyzed for pH, water temperature (WTemp), turbidity, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids, total solids, total hardness, dissolved oxygen (DO), chloride, orthophosphates, ammonia, total coliforms (TC), and trace metal (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, and Fe) concentrations. Based on these parameters, different types of water quality indices (WQIs) were deduced. WQIs showed most of CMPA-SSWBs as good or medium quality water bodies, while none were categorized as bad. Moreover, it was observed that the minimal water quality index (WQI_m), computed using five parameters: WTemp, pH, DO, EC, and turbidity, gave a reliable estimate of water quality. The WQI_m gave similar results in 72% of the cases compared with other WQIs that were based on larger set of parameters. Based on our finding, we suggest the wider use WQI_m in developing countries for assessing health of SSWBs, as it will minimize the analytical cost to overcome the budget constraints involved in this kind of evaluations. It was observed that except turbidity and TC content, all other quality parameters fluctuated within the limit of the World Health Organization suggested standards for drinking water. From our findings, we concluded that if the turbidity and TC content of water from SSWBs in CMPA are taken care of, they will become good candidates as alternative water resources all round the year.     

Use of feathers of feral pigeons (Columba livia) as a technique for metal quantification and environmental monitoring

This study quantifies metal concentrations in washed and unwashed feathers of feral pigeons (Columba livia). The material was collected in two different sites: Goiania (capital of Goiás State), with high anthropic activities, and Jataí (a city in Goiás), with low anthropic activities. Results revealed that metals such as Pb, Cr, and Cd were deposited in the feathers originating from air and soil (exogenous process). Other metals such as Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn, which are part of the tissue constitution of a living being, were absorbed through the pigeons' diet (endogenous process). There was a statistically significant difference between mean values of Cd, Pb, and Cr in the three collection sites. The order of metal concentrations were Civic Square > Zoo > Jataí, which shows highest levels of metal contamination in anthropic environments. Significant differences between Cd, Pb, and Cr in washed and unwashed feathers suggest that metal concentrations are directly related to exposure time due to exogenous sources. We concluded that it is possible to quantify and monitor metal levels in the environment by analyzing the feathers of urban feral pigeons. Furthermore, unwashed feathers were especially efficient to investigate endogenous and exogenous absorption of the metals in our study.     

Urinary fluoride as a monitoring tool for assessing successful intervention in the provision of safe drinking water supply in five fluoride-affected villages in Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh, India

Endemic fluorosis was detected in 31 villages in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh, Central India. Out of the 109 drinking water sources that were analyzed, about 67 % were found to contain high concentration of fluoride above the permissible level of 1.0 mg/l. Dental fluorosis among the primary school children in the age between 8 and 15 served as primary indicator for fluoride intoxication among the children. Urinary fluoride levels among the adults were found to be correlated with drinking water fluoride in 10 villages affected by fluoride. Intervention in the form of alternate safe water supply in five villages showed significant reduction in the urinary fluoride concentration when compared to the control village. Urinary fluoride serves as an excellent marker for assessing the effectiveness of intervention program in the fluoride-affected villages.     

Utility of cefixime as a complexing reagent for the determination of Ni(II) in synthetic mixture and water samples

A simple, sensitive, and accurate UV spectrophotometric method has been developed for the determination of nickel in synthetic mixture and water samples. The method is based on the complexation reaction of nickel ion with cefixime, thus leading to the formation of Ni–cefixime complex in ethanol-distilled water medium at room temperature. The complex showed the maximum absorption wavelength at 332 nm. Beer’s law is obeyed in the working concentration range of 0.447–4.019 μg?mL^?1 with apparent molar absorptivity of 7.314?×?10³?L?mol^?1?cm^?1 and Sandell’s sensitivity of 0.008 μg/cm²/0.001 absorbance unit. The limits of detection and quantitation for the proposed method are 0.016 and 0.054 μg?mL^?1, respectively. The factors such as cefixime concentration and solvent affecting the complexation reaction were carefully studied and optimized. The method is validated as per the International Conference on Harmonisation guideline. The method is successfully applied to the determination of Ni(II) in synthetic mixture and wadi water samples collected from Al Rustaq. The same water samples are also analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Both methods determined the amount of Ni(II) in water sample and found to be approximately the same.     

Toxic equivalent concentrations (TEQs) for baseline toxicity and specific modes of action as a tool to improve interpretation of ecotoxicity testing of environmental samples

The toxic equivalency concept is a widely applied method to express the toxicity of complex mixtures of compounds that act via receptor-mediated mechanisms such as induction of the arylhydrocarbon or estrogen receptors. Here we propose to extend this concept to baseline toxicity, using the bioluminescence inhibition test with Vibrio fischeri, and an integrative ecotoxicity endpoint, algal growth rate inhibition. Both bioassays were validated by comparison with literature data and quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) for baseline toxicity were developed for all endpoints. The novel combined algae test, with Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, allows for the simultaneous evaluation of specific inhibition of photosynthesis and growth rate. The contributions of specific inhibition of photosynthesis and non-specific toxicity could be differentiated by comparing the time and endpoint pattern. Photosynthesis efficiency, measured with the saturation pulse method after 2 h of incubation, served as indicator of specific inhibition of photosynthesis by photosystem II inhibitors. Diuron equivalents were defined as toxicity equivalents for this effect. The endpoint of growth rate over 24 h served to derive baseline toxicity equivalent concentrations (baseline-TEQ). By performing binary mixture experiments with reference compounds and complex environmental samples from a sewage treatment plant and a river, the TEQ concept was validated. The proposed method allows for easier interpretation and communication of effect-based water quality monitoring data and provides a basis for comparative analysis with chemical analytical monitoring.     

Assessment of the potential of the rock gunnel (Pholis gunnellus) along the Atlantic coast of Canada as a species for monitoring the reproductive impacts of contaminant exposures

Evaluating the impacts of point source discharges on fish species in estuarine environments can be challenging because of a paucity of resident species. We evaluated the biology of rock gunnel (Pholis gunnellus) at three relatively uncontaminated sites in the Bay of Fundy, along the Atlantic coast of Canada. Rock gunnel are seasonally resident (April to November) in tide pools, but little was known about their life history in Atlantic Canada or their potential for use for monitoring environmental quality. Fish were collected between April and November, and ranged from 2.46 g--15.2~g in weight and 97 mm-170 mm in length, with a maximum age of 7 years. Both males and females were similar in size, and both reached sexual maturity at a size of 5.5 g. Organ weights and condition indices of fish were stable from spring when they returned from offshore (April to May) until late summer (August to September), but fall fish (October to November) had slightly larger gonads, livers and condition indices. Rock gunnel may be a useful indicator to provide insight into local impacts of point sources over a short time period. However, they do not provide adequate information on reproductive development and performance since they are not exposed to onshore contaminants during the periods of gonadal development that have most commonly found to be sensitive to anthropogenic stressors.