Impact of globalization on human work

This contribution addresses the phenomenon of globalization in its impact on the nature of work. Starting from an analysis and characterization of the general understanding of globalization, the contribution will attempt to identify those factors of globalization processes which appear to affect most strongly the work of different employment categories (e.g. management, production workers, intellectual workers). In a next step, the work and organizational psychological consequences of globalization in a two-pronged perspective will be analyzed: (1) The significant changes on work places (e.g. growth of mental work, expansion of service sector employment and corresponding shrinking of production work, work hour changes, unemployment, industrial relations). (2) The changing psychological demands on individuals in the work force (e.g. flexibility, coping with diversity, changing competence demands, changing the meaning of working). The concluding section considers the requisite political reorientation towards work in a globalizing world.     

Work centrality and work alienation: distinct aspects of a general commitment to work

The authors tested the proposition that identification with the work role and engagement in the work role constitute different aspects of a general commitment to work. Whereas work centrality (a strictly normative attitude) represents the extent to which a person identifies with the work role, work alienation (an affect‐inclusive attitude) represents the extent to which a person is engaged in the work role. Predicated on these conceptual distinctions, the authors tested whether work centrality and work alienation exhibited theoretically‐meaningful, differential correlations with six variables reflecting various work‐related commitments. Using data from 349 employed individuals, the results of Hotelling–Williams t tests revealed that, compared to work alienation, work centrality had stronger correlations with Protestant work ethic and leisure ethic. In contrast, compared to work centrality, work alienation was more strongly correlated with work locus of control, work self‐discipline, and affective organizational commitment. Work centrality and work alienation did not differ in their correlations with job involvement–role. Taken together, the results suggest that people who are highly committed to work not only identify with the work role, they are also engaged in the work role. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How work ideologies shape the psychological contracts of professional employees: doctors' responses to perceived breach

This study suggests that the psychological contract between a professional and his/her employing organization is shaped by both professional and administrative work ideologies and therefore involves both professional and administrative roles and perceived role obligations. It is also suggested that because of important differences between these two ideologies, a professional employee's response to perceptions that his/her organization is not fulfilling its role obligations will depend on whether the perceived breach involves professional or administrative obligations. Hypotheses based on this general proposition were strongly supported in a sample of medical professionals. Specifically, results suggest that perceived breaches of administrative role obligations are most strongly associated with dissatisfaction, thoughts of quitting, and turnover whereas perceived breaches of professional role obligations are most strongly associated with lower organizational commitment and job performance (productivity and client satisfaction). Implications for theory and research on the dimensionality of the psychological employment contract and on the employment of professionals are considered. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Age,work experience,and the psychological contract

The purpose of the current paper is to examine the ways in which age and work experience shape how individuals experience psychological contract breaches. We first introduce the concepts of contract malleability (the degree to which individuals can tolerate deviations from contract expectations) and contract replicability (the degree to which individuals believe that their psychological contracts can be replicated elsewhere). Next, we discuss the variety of reasons why contract malleability and replicability become greater with age and work experience and how contract malleability and replicability may temper negative reactions to psychological contract breaches. We also address the different ways contract malleability and replicability mediate the relationships between age and work experience, on one hand, and exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect behaviors on the other. We consider the moderating effects of age similarity and dissimilarity here as well. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications for future research designs and for managing older and more experienced workers. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

‘Work’ or ‘leisure’? The protestant work ethic and participation in an employee fitness program

Is a company's in-house fitness center perceived as a place to engage in ‘leisure ’activities that are distinct from ‘work’, or as an extension of normal ‘work ’activities? This exploratory study examined the possibility that Protestant Work Ethic (PWE) beliefs might influence the frequency with which employees use their company's exercise programs and facilities. If exercise programs are regarded as ‘leisure’, then PWE endorsers would likely not participate, but the reverse might be true to the extent that such programs are seen as ‘work’. A short survey was completed by 335 employees of a large Canadian corporation which maintained an in-house fitness center that had been in operation for 16 months. The sample was almost evenly divided between users and non-users of the facilities. Results indicated that PWE endorsement was positively related both to the frequency with which respondents visited their company's fitness center, and to the perception that exercise provided work-related benefits, and these findings suggest that on-the-job fitness is regarded more as a component of ‘work ’than of ‘leisure’. ‘A corporate fitness program is the hottest perk since the executive washroom ’(Hoffman and Hobson, 1984, p. 110).     

Time structure and purpose,Type A behavior,and the Protestant work ethic

This study extended pioneering research of M. J. Bond and N. T. Feather (1988) into time structure and purpose. These investigators reported generally positive relationships between five time structure components and Type A behavior and orthogonal relationships with the Protestant work ethic (PWE). Such findings seemed inconsistent with theoretical expectations, and therefore potentially threatened the nomological validity of Bond and Feather's Time Structure Questionnaire (TSQ). In this study, two samples of employed persons (total N=407) completed self‐report surveys. No time structure component was associated with global Type A or PWE measures. Orthogonal relationships also appeared with impatient, irritable, and time‐pressured aspects of Type A behavior, and with three PWE beliefs concerned with asceticism, leisure, and perceived superiority to others. On the other hand, some TSQ dimensions, particularly Persistence, related positively to PWE beliefs that hard work is essential to produce valued outcomes. Moreover, five of six TSQ components tended to be strongly and positively linked with the hard‐driving, competitive, and achievement‐oriented side of Type A behavior. This study reconciled past and current research findings, and affirmed the potential importance of time structure and purpose in the study of organizational behavior. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationships of gender,family responsibility and flexible work hours to organizational commitment and job satisfaction

Psychological contract theory (Rousseau, 1995) suggests that women and those with family responsibilities may negotiate new psychological contracts that include family-responsive benefits such as flexible work hours. Relationships of gender, family responsibility, and flexible work hours to organizational commitment and job satisfaction were examined among 160 matched male and female managers in a cross-organizational study. Results revealed that women who perceived their organizations offered flexible work hours reported higher levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction than women who did not. Also, flexible work hours were related to higher organizational commitment and job satisfaction for those having family responsibilities. Implications of these results for future research and organizational policy are discussed. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Flexible work schedules and mental and physical health. A study of a working population with non‐traditional working hours

The relationship between health complaints and flexible work schedules was studied in a patient population selected by general practitioners. Four hundred and eighty patients between 20 and 60 years, currently employed or on sick leave, completed questionnaires which compiled data on their work situation, subjective physical health, psychological well‐being, and quality of sleep. Subjective health measurements were performed by using the 21‐item Subjective Health Questionnaire (VOEG). Psychological well‐being was measured by applying a selection of the Sickness Impact Profile. Duration and quality of sleep were measured through a selection of the Groningen Sleep Scale. Patients working rotating shifts, compressed weeks, and irregularly changing hours showed significantly more health complaints, more problems related to their psychological performance, and more sleeping problems than a control group of workers with non‐flexible work schedules. Patients working on temporary employment contracts reported significantly more problems with their psychological performance. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Examination of the combined effects of work values and early work experiences on organizational commitment

We tested the hypothesis that the influence of early work experiences on organization commitment would be moderated by the value employees place on these experiences. We measured work values in two samples of recent university graduates prior to organizational entry, and obtained measures of commensurate work experiences and three forms of commitment (affective, continuance, and normative: Allen and Meyer, 1990) on different occasions following entry. Regression analyses revealed that values and experiences did interact in the prediction of affective commitment and normative commitment, but that the nature of the interaction was different for different work value/experience combinations. The findings provide some challenge to the common sense assumption that positive work experiences will have the strongest effect on commitment among those who most value such experiences. Implications for research and practice are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Predicting collective climates: assessing the role of shared work values,needs, employee interaction and work group membership

Previous research has debated whether the collective climates, produced through cluster analysis of psychological climate perceptions, are representative of meaningful organizational collectives or simply statistical artifacts. In this study we examined the extent to which collective climates are comprised of individuals with similar interpretive schemata such as work values and need strength or consist of individuals who share work group or interaction group membership. Measures of psychological climate, work values, need strength, and employee interaction patterns were collected from the management and administrative staff of a manufacturing organization. Results supported the symbolic interactionist perspective to the formation of collective climates. We found clear evidence that collective climates are related to employee interaction groups. Employee interaction based on sensemaking and information seeking activities was most strongly related to shared climate perceptions. There was also some evidence that individuals with similar levels of need strength share collective climate membership. Implications of these results on the debate over the use of collective climates are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationships between psychological climate perceptions and work outcomes: a meta‐analytic review

In this study, meta‐analytic procedures were used to examine the relationships between individual‐level (psychological) climate perceptions and work outcomes such as employee attitudes, psychological well‐being, motivation, and performance. Our review of the literature generated 121 independent samples in which climate perceptions were measured and analyzed at the individual level. These studies document considerable confusion regarding the constructs of psychological climate, organizational climate, and organizational culture and reveal a need for researchers to use terminology that is consistent with their level of measurement, theory, and analysis. Our meta‐analytic findings indicate that psychological climate, operationalized as individuals' perceptions of their work environment, does have significant relationships with individuals' work attitudes, motivation, and performance. Structural equation modeling analyses of the meta‐analytic correlation matrix indicated that the relationships of psychological climate with employee motivation and performance are fully mediated by employees' work attitudes. We also found that the James and James ( 1989 ) PC_g model could be extended to predict the impact of work environment perceptions on employee attitudes, motivation, and performance. Despite the number of published individual‐level climate studies that we found, there is a need for more research using standardized measures so as to enable analyses of the organizational and contextual factors that might moderate the effects of psychological climate perceptions. Finally, we argue for a molar theory of psychological climate that is rooted in the psychological processes by which individuals make meaning or their work experiences. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Managing the career deal: the psychological contract as a framework for understanding career management,organizational commitment and work behavior

This paper reports the findings of a study that investigated the relationship between different kinds of career management activities, the psychological contract, and outcomes of psychological contract fulfillment. The study tested a series of linked hypotheses which propose that individual career management behavior is associated with the experience of organizational career management help, which is related to fulfillment of the psychological contract. Fulfillment of the psychological contract in turn is linked to organizational commitment and is associated with behaviors at work, including absenteeism, turnover, and independent ratings of job performance. The findings provide some support for these proposed links. As a result, the paper makes four contributions to the psychological contract and careers literature: first, it shows that both individual and organizational career management behaviors are linked to psychological contract fulfillment; second, organizational career management help is associated with affective commitment and job performance; third, psychological contract fulfillment plays a key role in mediating the relationship between career management help and such attitudes and behaviors; and fourth, organizational commitment may mediate between psychological contract fulfillment and individual career management behavior aimed at furthering the career outside the organization. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐esteem,appraisal and coping: a comparison of unemployed and re‐employed people

The negative effects of unemployment on psychological health are well documented, yet Kasl's ( 1982 ) reverse causation hypothesis is that positive psychological health, and in particular self‐esteem, facilitates re‐employment. The aim of this study was to investigate this proposal by assessing levels of self‐esteem, cognitive appraisals and coping efforts among unemployed persons and relating these factors to their employment status six months later. Two hundred and one unemployed (49 per cent female, 51 per cent male; mean age = 32.41 ± 10.18 years) and 128 employed respondents (59 per cent female, 41 per cent male; mean age = 35.0 ± 11.73 years) participated in the study. Participants completed the Adult Self‐Perception Profile, Access to Categories of Experience, Locus of Control, Deakin Coping Scale, and the Meaningful Leisure Activities Questionnaire at baseline and at six‐month follow‐up using a mail‐out survey. Comparison of baseline appraisals revealed that future re‐employed participants rated their latent deprivation lower and their internal locus of control higher than those continuously unemployed, and they also derived more internal meaning from leisure activities. Overall, the results provide support for Kasl's reverse causation hypothesis extended to these other domains of psychological health. Intervention strategies designed to incorporate the promotion of these factors are discussed. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Employment commitment as a moderator of the maternal employment status/child behavior relationship

Research findings suggest that maternal employment exerts no consistent detrimental effects on children. In this study, the moderating role of employment commitment and child sex on the relationship between maternal employment status and child behavior is investigated. Mothers and teachers provided behavioral ratings for 185 elementary school children (M age = 9.42 years). Employment commitment moderated the influence of employment status on mothers' and teachers' ratings of children's attention problems and immaturity: Children whose mothers' employment status and commitment were not congruent were less attentive and more immature than those whose mothers' employment status and commitment were congruent. The statistical and applied significance of these results is suggested, as is the possibility that mother-child interactions mediate the manner in which incongruencies between employment status and employment commitment influence children's inattention-immaturity.     

Thriving at work: Toward its measurement,construct validation,and theoretical refinement

Thriving is defined as the psychological state in which individuals experience both a sense of vitality and learning. We developed and validated a measure of the construct of thriving at work. Additionally, we theoretically refined the construct by linking it to key outcomes, such as job performance, and by examining its contextual embeddedness. In Study 1, we conducted second‐order confirmatory factor analyses in two samples, demonstrating initial support for the two‐dimensional structure of thriving. We provided evidence for the convergent and discriminant validity of thriving in relation to theoretically related constructs, such as positive and negative affects, learning and performance goal orientations, proactive personality, and core self‐evaluations. In Study 2, across two different samples, we further assessed construct validity by establishing a relationship between thriving and career development initiative, burnout, health, and individual job performance, explaining significant variance beyond traditional attitudinal predictors, such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Finally, in Study 3, we focused on understanding the contextual embeddedness of thriving. We found differences in reports of thriving across two points in time, when substantial changes are occurring in peoples' work lives and across contexts (i.e., work and non‐work). Implications for theory and practice, as well as directions for future research, are discussed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Psychological ownership and feelings of possession: three field studies predicting employee attitudes and organizational citizenship behavior

An increasing number of scholars and practitioners have emphasized the importance of ‘feelings of ownership’ for the organization (even when employees are not legal owners). In this exploratory study, we examine the relationships of psychological ownership with work attitudes and work behaviors. We start by developing hypotheses based on the psychology of possession and psychological ownership literatures. We then test these hypotheses with data from three field samples, using responses from over 800 employees, as well as manager and peer observations of employee behavior. Results demonstrate positive links between psychological ownership for the organization and employee attitudes (organizational commitment, job satisfaction, organization‐based self‐esteem), and work behavior (performance and organizational citizenship). More important, psychological ownership increased explained variance in organization‐based self‐esteem and organizational citizenship behavior (both peer and supervisor observations of citizenship), over and above the effects of job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Contrary to prior theoretical work on psychological ownership, results, however, fail to show an incremental value of psychological ownership in predicting employee performance. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of long-term unemployment on attitudes to employment

This paper is concerned with whether long-term unemployment (6-24 months) affects people's attitudes to employment once they have found a new job. One hundred and forty men aged 25-40 were asked whether they felt various aspects of employment (e.g. job security, pay) are more important to them as a result of being unemployed. The effects of mental well-being when unemployed on attitudes to employment are explored. Unemployment is reported to have made most aspects of employment more important to people. Those whose mental health was worst when unemployed report that job security is most important to them.     

The outcomes of downward managerial mobility

Research examining the effects of unemployment among white collar workers has produced patterns of findings different to those for lower socio-economic groups. The present longitudinal questionnaire study examines the psychological impact of managerial job moves which are downward in status, and considers the effects of periods of unemployment between job changes. The results indicate that among managers the negative impact of downward status moves on psychological adjustment is greater than that of temporary role loss. These effects are associated with decrements in preceived growth and development opportunities at work. The relationship between work and non-work life for our understanding of psychological adjustment is considered.     

Dispositional affectivity as a predictor of work attitudes and job performance

Previous research has shown that dispositional negative affect (NA) is associated with lower levels of job satisfaction. Little research has been conducted, however, on other organizational implications of negative affect or on the potential effects of dispositional positive affect (PA). The present studies examined the relationship of both positive and negative affectivity to organizational commitment, turnover intentions, global job satisfaction and performance. In the first study both NA and PA were associated with organizational commitment and turnover intentions. Additionally, commitment mediated the relationship between dispositional affectivity and turnover. Finally, PA and tenure interacted to predict job performance, such that PA and job performance were positively related, but only for high tenure employees. In Study 2 the findings were generally similar, but not identical. Both NA and PA were related to global job satisfaction and turnover intentions. However, only PA was related to affective organizational commitment. Moreover, both job satisfaction and affective commitment mediated the relationship between dispositional affectivity and turnover intentions. Finally, unlike Study 1, PA was not related to job performance. Rather, NA and tenure interacted such that when individuals were lower in tenure, NA was negatively related to performance.     

Success and failure in the labour market

In previous research on unemployment, conflicting evidence has been found for a ‘reverse causation interpretation’, indicating that prolonged unemployment is a consequence of psychological distress instead of the reverse. The present longitudinal study was conducted to test this reverse causation explanation. A second issue addressed in this study was whether getting a job or not depends more strongly on subjective or psychological factors than on objective factors (e.g. a person's biographical background, length of unemployment). Two independent samples were examined: Sample 1 (n = 635) consisted of school-leavers, and sample 2 (n = 467) consisted of subjects who had been unemployed for more than one year. Some support was found for the reverse causation explanation. In addition, more than objective factors, a strong job orientation and a problem focused coping style appeared to be a precursor of success in the labour market. Accordingly, getting a job seems to be primarily a function of one's own efforts.