大气CO2浓度增高对农田土壤硝化活性的影响

利用中国唯一的FACE(Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment,开放式空气CO2浓度增高)平台,研究大气CO2浓度增高对农田土壤硝化活性的影响.位于无锡的中国稻麦轮作农田生态系统FACE试验平台于2001年6月开始运行,设有FACE与Ambient(普通空气对照)2个处理,FACE区CO2浓度比Ambient区高200 μmol·mol-1,每个处理含低氮与常氮2个氮肥水平.在轮作水稻和小麦各3季之后,发现大气CO2浓度增高下,常氮水平上土壤的NO3--N质量分数降低,NH4+-N质量分数增高;而低氮水平上土壤的NO3--N质量分数增高,NH4+-N质量分数没有显著差异.然后分别在土壤样品中加入NH4+-N,好气培养42 d后通过测定土壤中的NO3--N、NO2--N总质量分数来研究土壤的硝化活性.结果显示,不管在CO2浓度增高下还是对照条件下,增加氮肥施用量均增强了土壤的硝化活性;且与对照相比,大气CO2浓度增高在常氮水平上降低了土壤的硝化活性,在低氮水平上却增强了土壤的硝化活性,说明大气CO2浓度增高对农田土壤硝化活性的影响与N肥供应水平有关.     

大气CO2浓度升高对添加麦秸条件下稻田土壤酶活性的影响

利用中国扬州开放式大气CO2浓度升高(FACE)系统稻麦轮作试验平台,研究大气CO2浓度升高对稻田小麦秸秆降解过程中土壤酶活性的影响.试验平台设置FACE[(580±60)μmol·mol-1]和对照[(380±40)μmol·mol-1]2个CO2浓度,在低氮(150 kg·hm-2)和高氮(250 kg·hm-2)2种氮水平下添加小麦秸秆,分别在不同生长时期采样并分析土壤脱氢酶、脲酶、磷酸酶和蔗糖酶活性.结果表明:同一氮水平下,大气CO2浓度升高显著增强土壤脱氢酶、脲酶和蔗糖酶活性,但显著降低土壤磷酸酶活性;无论是大气CO2浓度升高条件下还是对照条件下,低氮处理土壤脱氢酶与脲酶活性均高于高氮处理,而高氮处理土壤磷酸酶活性均高于低氮处理,氮水平对蔗糖酶活性并无显著影响.     

稻季土壤溶液中微量元素浓度对大气CO2浓度升高的响应

利用中国稻/麦轮作FACE（Free Air Carbon-dioxide Enrichment）试验平台,研究大气CO2浓度升高（比周围大气高200μmol·mol-1）对2007年稻季各生育期不同深度土壤溶液微量元素质量浓度影响。结果表明,大气CO2浓度升高对不同深度土壤溶液微量元素质量浓度的影响在不同生育期有所差异;尽管大多未达显著水平,大气CO2浓度升高表现出增加不同层次土壤溶液微量元素质量浓度的趋势,对土壤溶液Fe质量浓度增加程度尤为明显;从整个生育期看,FACE对土壤溶液Fe质量浓度增加幅度在5、15、30、60和90cm处分别为47.6%,36.3%,7.6%,37.0%和201.8%。大气CO2浓度升高对稻田土壤溶液微量元素质量浓度的长期影响需要进一步深入研究。     

稻季土壤溶液中微量元素浓度对大气CO_2浓度升高的响应

利用中国稻/麦轮作FACE(Free Air Carbon-dioxide Enrichment)试验平台,研究大气CO2浓度升高(比周围大气高200μmol·mol-1)对2007年稻季各生育期不同深度土壤溶液微量元素质量浓度影响。结果表明,大气CO2浓度升高对不同深度土壤溶液微量元素质量浓度的影响在不同生育期有所差异;尽管大多未达显著水平,大气CO2浓度升高表现出增加不同层次土壤溶液微量元素质量浓度的趋势,对土壤溶液Fe质量浓度增加程度尤为明显;从整个生育期看,FACE对土壤溶液Fe质量浓度增加幅度在5、15、30、60和90cm处分别为47.6%,36.3%,7.6%,37.0%和201.8%。大气CO2浓度升高对稻田土壤溶液微量元素质量浓度的长期影响需要进一步深入研究。     

长期定位施肥对土壤微量元素含量的影响

在25年长期定位试验研究基础上,分析了无肥、N、NP、NPK、N 有机肥和N 秸秆6个不同施肥处理的0～20cm土壤微量元素B、Fe、Mn、Cu和Zn的质量分数变化。结果表明:不同施肥处理的土壤有效B和有效Zn均为增加,分别是试验基础数值的2.9倍～4.7倍和1.0倍～4.7倍。N 有机肥处理质量分数最高,无肥处理最低。有效Fe、Mn、Cu的质量分数除N 有机肥处理的Fe和Cu增加了0.95mg·kg-1和0.43mg·kg-1以外,都呈现出下降的趋势。各处理的土壤全量Fe呈减少趋势,全量Mn、Cu和Zn除无肥处理和Cu除单施N肥处理稍有减少以外,都呈现增加的趋势。全量Cu和Zn以N 有机肥处理质量分数最高,N 秸秆和施用P肥处理次之。施用以垃圾、畜禽废弃物为原料的有机肥以及施用P肥等可以增加土壤微量元素,施肥是影响土壤微量元素质量分数变化的重要因素。     

大气CO2浓度升高对农田土壤颗粒组成及其碳周转的影响

采集FACE(Free Air CO2 Enrichment)平台下运行3年的水稻(Oryza sativaL.)/小麦(Triticum aestivumL.)轮作土壤(0~15cm耕作层土壤),利用超声波分散-湿筛分法对烘干土样进行颗粒分级,分析土壤各粒级及其碳、氮的分布特征,研究大气CO2浓度升高对土壤碳周转的影响。结果表明:高浓度大气CO2条件下稻/麦轮作3年后,土壤颗粒组成较对照发生了改变,>53μm粒级的质量分数减小27%(p<0.05),约占土壤总质量20%;53~25μm粒级的质量分数增大35%(p<0.05),约占土壤总质量25%;<25μm无明显变化,约占土壤总质量55%,三种粒级之间质量分数呈显著差异(p<0.05)。FACE条件下,不同粒级土壤颗粒碳质量分数在两个氮水平下平均为:>53μm(30.60g·kg-1),<25μm(13.08g·kg-1),25~53μm(12.85g·kg-1),氮质量分数分别为2.42g·kg-1,1.33g·kg-1,1.12g·kg-1。>53μm粒级的土壤颗粒碳、氮质量分数均极显著高于其它两个粒级(p<0.001)。FACE条件下土壤总碳、氮质量分数高于对照,增幅分别为6.2%和6.7%。从各粒级土壤颗粒碳、氮质量分数变化分析,新增碳、氮主要进入>53μm粒级中,表明该粒级土壤颗粒对土壤碳氮循环(转化和保存)起着重要作用。该研究结果表明高浓度大气CO2条件下,稻/麦轮作农田土壤将成为大气CO2的汇,这将为预测我国未来农田土壤碳的变化趋势提供科学依据。     

大气CO_2浓度升高对稻田土壤Ca、Mg含量的影响

为了研究稻田生态系统中土壤钙、镁元素生物地球化学循环对大气CO2浓度升高的响应。利用中国稻/麦轮作FACE（Free Air Carbon-dioxide Enrichment）试验平台,研究大气CO2浓度升高（比周围大气高200μmol mol-1）对2007年稻季各生育期不同深度土壤溶液ρ（Ca）、ρ（Mg）的影响。结果表明,大气CO2浓度升高降低了5 cm处土壤溶液ρ（Ca）、ρ（Mg）,有增加稻季30、60和90 cm处土壤溶液ρ（Ca）的趋势,其增幅分别为18.3%、12.4%和15.3%;大气CO2浓度升高会增加稻季Ca淋溶损失风险;稻季不同深度土壤溶液ρ（Ca）、ρ（Mg）对大气CO2浓度升高的响应有所不同。稻田生态系统不同深度土壤Ca、Mg循环对大气CO2浓度升高的响应值得深入研究。     

土壤中重金属[S,S]-乙二胺二琥珀酸浸提及其对重金属形态分布的影响

采用螯合剂[S,S]-乙二胺二琥珀酸([S,S]-EDDS)对废弃矿区附近的农田土壤进行浸提,分析浸提前后残留土壤样品中重金属的形态.结果表明,[S,S]-EDDS对重金属元素的提取率在不同土壤之间有较大差异,对Cu的浸提率为13.4%-13.8%,对Pb的浸提率为2.28%-16.3%,对Zn的浸提率为2.73%-11.3%.[S,S]-EDDS在提取重金属的同时也造成了Fe和Mn的明显溶出,其中Fe的溶出率为0.090%-0.291%,Mn的溶出率为2.53%-6.31%,均远高于对照组.[S,S]-EDDS浸提后酸溶/可交换态金属含量的变化倚赖于金属种类,对于Cu和Zn,经[S,S]-EDDS浸提之后,其酸溶/可交换态含量远低于对照组;但对于Pb,经[S,S]-EDDS浸提之后,酸溶/可交换态含量略高于对照组.[S,S]-EDDS对Cu和Zn四种形态均有浸提作用,且对残渣态的影响小于其它形态.[S,S]-EDDS浸提导致土样中Cu和Zn残渣态比例上升,其它形态比例的变化则依赖于金属的种类以及土壤性质.     

宝山堇菜多金属吸收特征和耐性策略

宝山堇菜Viola baoshanensis Shu,Liu et Lan是一种Cd超富集植物,但它对不同重金属的吸收和转运能力有待进一步研究。从湖南桂阳宝山多金属矿区中筛选4个宝山堇菜优势分布的小生境,分析这些生境中宝山堇菜及其根区土壤的重金属质量分数。化学分析结果显示,宝山堇菜优势分布土壤中Cd、Pb、Zn、Cu、Mn和Fe的平均质量分数(mg/kg)分别为471、15 044、8 273、1 776、4 702和69 054。宝山堇菜地上部Cd、Pb、Zn、Cu、Mn和Fe的平均质量分数(mg/kg)分别为387、1 077、1 037、99、379和1 812,其中Cd、Pb超过超富集植物标准,Zn、Cu的平均质量分数大约是Zn、Cu超富集植物标准的10%,Mn的平均质量分数低于Mn超富集植物标准的5%,Fe的平均质量分数高于1 000 mg/kg。上述结果表明,宝山堇菜可以超富集Cd和Pb,富集Zn、Cu和Fe以及低积累Mn。此外,宝山堇菜对不同重金属差别化吸收模式可能也代表了超富集植物适应重金属复合污染土壤的一种策略。     

宝山堇菜多金属吸收特征和耐性策略

宝山堇菜Viola baoshanensis Shu,Liu et Lan是一种Cd超富集植物,但它对不同重金属的吸收和转运能力有待进一步研究。从湖南桂阳宝山多金属矿区中筛选4个宝山堇菜优势分布的小生境,分析这些生境中宝山堇菜及其根区土壤的重金属质量分数。化学分析结果显示,宝山堇菜优势分布土壤中Cd、Pb、Zn、Cu、Mn和Fe的平均质量分数（mg/kg）分别为471、15 044、8 273、1 776、4 702和69 054。宝山堇菜地上部Cd、Pb、Zn、Cu、Mn和Fe的平均质量分数（mg/kg）分别为387、1 077、1 037、99、379和1 812,其中Cd、Pb超过超富集植物标准,Zn、Cu的平均质量分数大约是Zn、Cu超富集植物标准的10%,Mn的平均质量分数低于Mn超富集植物标准的5%,Fe的平均质量分数高于1 000 mg/kg。上述结果表明,宝山堇菜可以超富集Cd和Pb,富集Zn、Cu和Fe以及低积累Mn。此外,宝山堇菜对不同重金属差别化吸收模式可能也代表了超富集植物适应重金属复合污染土壤的一种策略。     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.