湍流对粉尘云电火花点火过程的影响

随着现代工业的发展,粉尘爆炸事故发生的频率也逐年增加,因此,对粉尘云点火敏感程度进行测量和计算就变得十分重要。粉尘云最小点火能是粉尘爆炸重要的特性参数之一,是采取粉尘爆炸防护的基础。最小点火能在测量的过程中受到多个敏感条件的影响,其中湍流则是最复杂的影响因素之一。文中对实验过程中粉尘云的湍流进行了定义,并分析了湍流对粉尘云最小点火能影响的内在原因;同时对通过数值模拟计算粉尘云最小点火能过程中的湍流计算给出了数学模型。从实验和数学模型两个方向对湍流进行了全面描述,对粉尘云电火花点火过程中湍流影响的分析结论,可有效的指导实验。     

Influence of dustiness on small-scale vented dust explosions

A new safety characteristic the “dustiness” according to VDI 2263 – part 9 (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, 2008) is investigated. Dustiness means the tendency of a dust to form clouds. The paper deals with the physical reasons for the different behavior of dusts, even if they have similar properties such as particle size and density and the influence of the dustiness on dust explosions. In order to study the effects of the dustiness on dust cloud formation for different dispersion methods experiments in a vertical dust dispersion glass tube apparatus were carried out. Furthermore vented dust explosion experiments were done for two different dispersion methods and two static activation pressures.Experiments show that particle size and density are not the only factors which influence dispersibility. Particle shape, specific surface area, flow and dispersion method have an influence which can outweigh size and density. Preliminary explosion experiments showed that the dustiness has an influence on the reduced explosion pressure and flame speed in a vented 75 L test apparatus. In order to verify the results for applications in the process industries further tests with industrial scale experiments are planned.     

工业生产粉尘爆炸预防和缓解──近期研究与发展综述

本文包括三个方面，即工业粉爆的基础研究、应用研究以及粉尘点人性和可爆性。基础研究包括粉尘云的形成和点火，火焰的传播以及粉煤产生的冲击波。工业预防措施包括惰化和消除点火源。缓解的方法包括隔爆、泄爆、部分惰化、抑爆和全封闭。基础研究和应用研究相互促进。计算机模拟模型可能成为非常有效的方法，也可用于专家系统。     

Visualization and analysis of dispersion process of combustible dust in a transparent Siwek 20-L chamber

Dust explosion severities are closely associated with dust dispersion behaviors. To characterize the dispersion process of dust cloud, visualization experiments were conducted by using a transparent Siwek 20-L chamber. Dispersion processes of typical carbonaceous dust were recorded by a high-speed camera and, with the image processing technique, the qualitative analysis based on the transmission of dust cloud was carried out. Results have evidenced the three consecutive stages of dust dispersion process: the fast injection stage of dust particles, the stabilization stage and the sedimentation stage of dust cloud. The motion of dust particles and the variations of dust cloud in space and time can be clearly distinguished. In the stabilization stage, the good uniformity of dust dispersion is achieved when the deviation of transmission data at different locations reaches to the minimum value. Under different nominal dust concentrations, the time periods for dust dispersion stabilization are found to be significantly different, suggesting that different dust concentrations should correspond to different ignition delay in order to accurately measure the explosion characteristics in the Siwek 20-L chamber. Moreover, it is found that the decrease trend of transmission with increasing nominal dust concentration will become gradually leveling off, different from the inversely proportional relationship according to the Bouguer's law, and this indicates that the actual dust concentration will be lower than the nominal concentration or the dust cannot be fully dispersed at the case of high dust concentration. According to the experiment, when the nominal dust concentration exceeds to 1000 g/m³, the transmission will no longer vary visibly.     

Post-explosion observations of experimental mine and laboratory coal dust explosions

The Pittsburgh Research Laboratory (PRL) of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) conducted joint research on dust explosions by studying post-explosion dust samples. The samples were collected after full-scale explosions at the PRL Lake Lynn Experimental Mine (LLEM), and after laboratory explosions in the PRL 20-L chamber and the Fike 1 m³ chamber. The dusts studied included both high- and low-volatile bituminous coals. Low temperature ashing for 24 h at 515 °C was used to measure the incombustible content of the dust before and after the explosions. The data showed that the post-explosion incombustible content was always as high as, or higher than the initial incombustible content. The MSHA alcohol coking test was used to determine the amount of coked dust in the post-explosion samples. The results showed that almost all coal dust that was suspended within the explosion flame produced significant amounts of coke. Measurements of floor dust concentrations after LLEM explosions were compared with the initial dust loadings to determine the transport distance of dust during an explosion. All these data will be useful in future forensic investigations of accidental dust explosions in coal mines, or elsewhere.     

A correlation of the lower flammability limit for hybrid mixtures

Hybrid mixtures are widely encountered in industries such as coal mines, paint factories, pharmaceutical industries, or grain elevators. Hybrid mixtures explosions involving dust and gas can cause great loss of lives and properties. The lower flammability limit (LFL) is a critical parameter when conducting a hazard assessment or developing mitigation methods for processes involving hybrid mixtures. Unlike unitary dust or gas explosions, which have been widely studied in past decades, only minimal research focuses on hybrid mixtures, and data concerning hybrid mixtures can rarely be found. Although methods to predict the LFL have been developed by using either Le Chatelier's Law, which was initially proposed for homogeneous gas mixtures, or the Bartknecht curve, which was adopted for only certain hybrid mixtures, significant deviations still remain. A more accurate correlation to predict an LFL for a hybrid mixtures explosion is necessary for risk assessment. This work focuses on the study of hybrid mixtures explosions in a 36 L dust explosion apparatus including mixtures of methane/niacin, methane/cornstarch, ethane/niacin and ethylene/niacin in air. By utilizing basic characteristics of unitary dust or gas explosions, a new formula is proposed to improve the prediction of the LFL of the mixture. The new formula is consistent with Le Chatelier's Law.     

Does your facility have a dust problem: Methods for evaluating dust explosion hazards

The hazards of dust explosions prevailing in plants are dependent on a large variety of factors that include process parameters, such as pressure, temperature and flow characteristics, as well as equipment properties, such as geometry layout, the presence of moving elements, dust explosion characteristics and mitigating measures. A good dust explosion risk assessment is a thorough method involving the identification of all hazards, their probability of occurrence and the severity of potential consequences. The consequences of dust explosions are described as consequences for personnel and equipment, taking into account consequences of both primary and secondary events.While certain standards cover all the basic elements of explosion prevention and protection, systematic risk assessments and area classifications are obligatory in Europe, as required by EU ATEX and Seveso II directives. In the United States, NFPA 654 requires that the design of the fire and explosion safety provisions shall be based on a process hazard analysis of the facility, process, and the associated fire or explosion hazards. In this paper, we will demonstrate how applying such techniques as SCRAM (short-cut risk analysis method) can help identify potentially hazardous conditions and provide valuable assistance in reducing high-risk areas. The likelihood of a dust explosion is based on the ignition probability and the probability of flammable dust clouds arising. While all possible ignition sources are reviewed, the most important ones include open flames, mechanical sparks, hot surfaces, electric equipment, smoldering combustion (self-ignition) and electrostatic sparks and discharges. The probability of dust clouds arising is closely related to both process and dust dispersion properties.Factors determining the consequences of dust explosions include how frequently personnel are present, the equipment strength, implemented consequence-reducing measures and housekeeping, as risk assessment techniques demonstrate the importance of good housekeeping especially due to the enormous consequences of secondary dust explosions (despite their relatively low probability). The ignitibility and explosibility of the potential dust clouds also play a crucial role in determining the overall risk.Classes describe both the likelihood of dust explosions and their consequences, ranging from low probabilities and limited local damage, to high probability of occurrence and catastrophic damage. Acceptance criteria are determined based on the likelihood and consequence of the events. The risk assessment techniques also allow for choosing adequate risk reducing measures: both preventive and protective. Techniques for mitigating identified explosions risks include the following: bursting disks and quenching tubes, explosion suppression systems, explosion isolating systems, inerting techniques and temperature control. Advanced CFD tools (DESC) can be used to not only assess dust explosion hazards, but also provide valuable insight into protective measures, including suppression and venting.     

Effects of multiple annular obstacles on flame propagation of local corn starch dust in a vertical pipe

With high-speed camera technology, the propagation behavior of explosion flame for the local dust cloud of corn starch in a semi-open vertical pipe under the action of the annular obstacle was studied experimentally, and the blockage rate and the annular obstacle numbers as well as impact of dust cloud concentration on the flame propagation were investigated. The researches showed that both the blockage rate and the annular obstacle numbers have significant effects on the flame speed and propagation process for the dust cloud explosion of corn starch. The increase of the blockage rate of such annular obstacles will cause that the combustion of dust cloud with high concentration is mainly concentrated in the lower part of the pipe. The increase of the annular obstacle numbers will lead to the acceleration of combustion of the dust cloud. With the increase of the blockage rate and the annular obstacle numbers, the maximum flame speed shows a trend of the first increasing and then decreasing, and the phenomenon of accelerated propagation of the flame becomes more and more obvious, however, the distance of continuous acceleration for the flame is gradually decreased and the maximum flame speed is farther from the outlet of the pipe. Under the action of such annular obstacles, the concentration of dust cloud has a significant effect on the flame speed and shape of the dust cloud of the corn starch. The increase of the concentration of the dust cloud will decrease the acceleration effect of such annular obstacles to result in maximum flame speed showing a trend of the first increasing and then decreasing. However, the acceleration distance of the flame is longer, and the maximum flame speed is closer to the outlet of the pipe. The increasing concentration will make the flame speed develop more slowly, the flame color will be darker, and the flame segmentation phenomenon will be more obvious.     

Evaluation of the explosibility of malt grain dust based on static electrification during pneumatic transportation

The possibility of dust explosions by static electricity in a malt grain silo was investigated. Two kinds of experimental equipment were applied. One was to supply electrostatic charge in order to investigate the charge build up characteristics. The other was to transport the malt grain pneumatically in order to investigate the frictional charge accumulation in the transportation system.

The particle charge of the pulverized malt grain was in the order of 10⁻¹⁴ C. The particle charge of the malt grain was in the order of 10⁻⁹ C and the pipe charge in the transport system was also in the order of 10⁻⁹ C. The charge accumulated on both the pulverized particle and the grain particle were small in view of the incendiary potentiality. However, attention must be paid when the particles are dumped into isolated space. There might be a charge accumulation that will lead to the ignition of the dust cloud.     

Dust explosion hazard assessment

The majority of powders that are used in the processing industries are combustible (also referred to as flammable, explosible). An explosion will occur if the concentration of the combustible dust that is suspended in air is sufficient to propagate flame when ignited by a sufficiently energetic ignition source.A systematic approach to identifying dust cloud explosion safety against their consequences generally involves:-Identification of locations where combustible dust cloud atmospheres could be present-Understanding of the explosion characteristics of the dust(s)-Identification of potential ignition sources that could be present under normal and abnormal conditions-Proper process and facility design to eliminate and/or minimize the occurrence of dust explosions and protect people and facilities against their consequences-Adequate maintenance of facilities to prevent ignition sources and minimize dust releaseThis presentation will discuss the conditions that are required for dust cloud explosions to occur and presents a well-tried approach to identify, assess, and eliminate/control dust explosion hazards in facilities.     

Incendiary characteristics of electrostatic discharge for dust and gas explosion

Paying attention to the ignition potentiality of static electricity, the relation between the discharge characteristics and the ignition of a dust cloud and the gas produced was studied, applying an electrical power supply of which the electrical circuit is adjustable. The effect of ignition characteristics on dust and gas explosions was investigated. The results of the study indicate that the probability of an explosion is influenced by the minimum ignition energy, spark duration time, feeding rate of ignition energy, circuit capacitance, ignition voltage, etc.     

粉尘爆炸反应工程学简要综述

１９９３年在波兰召开的第五届国际粉尘爆炸学术会议上，邓煦帆曾在论文中提议建立粉尘爆炸反应工程学，并提出学科的目的意义、性质、主要组成部分和研究方法。本文拟将国内外有关本学科范围内的贡献，加以简要综述，以期能逐渐形成本学科的自身体系和特点。     

Some aspects in testing and assessment of metal dust explosions

The dust explosion committee of the Association of Powder Process Industry and Engineering, Japan recently established two testing standards for dust explosions. In the investigations for the standardization, many experimental data have been obtained for the dusts currently used in Japanese industries. Data for zirconium, tantalum and silicone dusts are presented to discuss the use of test methods, which have been accepted internationally. The test methods for dust explosions have to consider a variety of kinds and forms of dusts to be tested.     

Temperature profile across the combustion zone propagating through an iron particle cloud

Knowledge of the mechanism of combustion zone propagation during dust explosion is of great importance to prevent damage caused by accidental dust explosions. In this study, the temperature profile across the combustion zone propagating through an iron particle cloud is measured experimentally by a thermocouple to elucidate the propagation mechanism. The measured temperature starts to increase slowly at a position about 5 mm ahead of the leading edge of the combustion zone, increases quickly at a position about 3 mm ahead of the leading edge, reaches a maximum value near the end of the combustion zone, and then decreases. As the iron particle concentration increases, the maximum temperature increases at lower concentration, takes a maximum value, and then decreases at higher concentration. The relation between the propagation velocity of the combustion zone and the maximum temperature is also examined. It is found that the propagation velocity has a linear relationship with the maximum temperature. This result suggests that the conductive heat transfer is dominant in the propagation process of the combustion zone through an iron particle cloud.     

Investigations into the influence of dustiness on dust explosions

A new safety characteristic the “dustiness” according to VDI 2263 – part 9 (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, 2008) is investigated. Dustiness means the tendency of a dust to form clouds. The paper deals with the influence of the dustiness on vented dust explosions. In order to look into the effects of the dustiness on dust cloud formation and explosion properties experiments and simulations in a vertical dust dispersion glass tube apparatus were carried out.Preliminary explosion experiments showed that the dustiness has an influence on the reduced explosion pressure in a vented 75 L test apparatus. Dusts with comparable p_max and K_St values and different dustiness were tested. Dusts with higher dustiness produced higher overpressures, despite comparable safety characteristics. In order to verify the results for applications in the process industries further tests with different settings are planned as well as industrial scale experiments. Characteristics of the dust such as particle size, density, specific surface area and particle shape, which influence the dispersibility, have been determined experimentally.The Euler/Lagrange and the Euler/Euler approaches are compared for simulating an exemplary dust/air mixture. Especially sedimentation and the ability of the approaches to simulate the tendency of dust to stay airborne were investigated. The Euler/Lagrange approach is better suited for simulating local dust concentrations, particle size distributions and particle forces. It could be used to point out regions of high dust concentrations in a vessel. With the Euler/Euler method it is possible to achieve fast solutions for one specified diameter, but the simulated dust/air mixtures are always more homogenous than in reality. ANSYS CFX version 13 was used in all simulations.     

Dust explosions and collapsed ductwork

One of the more obvious consequences of a dust deflagration inside process equipment or a structure is the mechanical damage caused by shock (compression) waves. This overpressure damage is revealed through the displacement of equipment, the outward deformation or rupture of enclosures constructed of ductile materials, or the projection of missiles. However, a different type of damage is sometimes observed in the ductwork connecting process equipment. In particular, the ductwork is collapsed as if it were subjected to an external, rather than an internal pressure. The phenomenon that causes this collapse of thin-walled conduit is a gas dynamic process called an expansion wave. When a dust deflagration travels through a conduit, it accelerates and causes a rise in pressure. When the dust deflagration is vented (say through a deflagration vent), the discharge of the high-pressure combustion products causes the formation of an expansion wave that travels in the reverse direction of the original discharge. The expansion wave causes the pressure in the ductwork to fall below atmospheric pressure. The sub-atmospheric pressure, in turn, causes the ductwork to fail by buckling. In this study, we examine the gas dynamics of the expansion wave, demonstrate how to calculate the degree of pressure drop caused by the expansion wave, and illustrate the concept with case studies of dust explosions.     

Explosibility and thermal decomposition behavior of nitrile rubber dust in industrial processes

The formation of nitrile rubber (NBR) dust clouds during processing can lead to a potential dust explosion under certain conditions. However, the potential explosion hazard posed by NBR dust is usually overlooked by enterprises. In this paper, the explosive properties of NBR dust are investigated using a Hartmann tube, a G-G furnace, and a 20 L explosion chamber. The results showed that NBR dust could cause explosions severe enough to be classified as St-1. In addition, the thermal decomposition behavior of NBR dust under combustion conditions was investigated using a combination of thermogravimetric analysis coupled with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR). The results indicated that in the early stage, NBR dust mainly undergoes self-thermal decomposition to produce a large amount of combustible gas, which combines with oxygen to form a mixed gas and cause a gas-phase explosion. In addition, the participation of oxygen could lower the initial temperature of NBR dust thermal decomposition. As a result, decomposition occurred more quickly and a large amount of combustible gas was produced, thus expanding the range of dust explosions. Furthermore, these combustible gases exhibit varying degrees of toxicity, seriously affecting the life and health safety of relevant personnel. This work provides theoretical guidance for the development of safe procedures to prevent and address problems during NBR dust processing in enterprises.     

Effects of ignitors and turbulence on dust explosions

The aim of this work is in an attempt to increase the understanding of the acting behaviour of pyrotechnic ignitors and their effects on confined dust explosions. Flame visualization has shown that pyrotechnic ignitors can initiate an explosion by instantaneous jet-like volumetric and/or multipoint ignition. Hence, the rate of pressure rise and also the apparent burning velocity will be increased to some extent, depending on the ignitor energy and the reactivity of the mixtures. The ignitor effect is more important for the early stages of flame propagation and would be more significant in small explosion chambers. Thus, for dust explosion tests with various purposes, use of pyrotechnic ignitors should be made carefully, and the ignitor effect must be accounted for in the data interpretation. Turbulence induced by dust dispersion is a dominant factor in affecting dust explosions. At different ignition delays, however, the turbulence influence will be coupled with that of ignitors. This complicates further the interpretation of explosion data measured under turbulent conditions.     

CFD modeling and simulation of turbulent fluid flow and dust dispersion in the 20-L explosion vessel equipped with the perforated annular nozzle

A three-dimensional CFD model was developed to simulate the turbulent flow field induced by dust feeding and the associated dust dispersion within the 20-L explosion vessel equipped with the perforated annular nozzle. The model was validated against experimental data for pressure and root mean square velocity.Simulation results have shown that the turbulent kinetic energy is rather uniformly distributed and its values are significantly lower than those attained with the rebound nozzle. Furthermore, the perforated annular nozzle is able to generate a uniform dust/air cloud. However, a consistent fraction of the dust remains trapped inside the nozzle and, thus, it does not contribute to the explosion process.     

Inhibiting effects by Fe2O3 on combustion and explosion characteristics of ABS resin

The global increase in the use of, and reliance on, plastics has prompted the demand for acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) resin in various fields. With this increased requirement, numerous failures have occurred in the ABS process. Those incidents, resulting from electrostatic discharge, powder accumulation, heat accumulation, construction sparks, and plant fires, have caused dust fire and explosions.In this study, the ABS resin was gleaned from the site and tested for its explosion parameters, including minimum ignition temperature of dust cloud (MIT_C), minimum ignition energy (MIE), and minimum explosion concentration (MEC). To improve loss prevention in the manufacturing process, ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃) as an inert additive was added in the ABS powder. According to the MIE test, Fe₂O₃ has an apparent inhibiting effect on dust explosion for the ABS dust. With the proportion of Fe₂O₃ increased from 25 to 50 mass% in ABS, the MIE increased from 67 to 540 mJ. The explosion tests via 20-L apparatus indicated that Fe₂O₃ mixed with ABS could not increase the MEC significantly. However, the explosion pressure dropped by increasing in the ratio of Fe₂O₃ in ABS. This inerting strategy of ABS was deemed to substantially lessen the probability and severity of fire and explosion.