A corporate approach to social monitoring and assessment for development in a fragile environment

The prevailing corporate trend regardingdevelopment of energy resources in the tropics emphasizesfinancial gain over long-term societal benefits. Somecorporations are beginning to find a competitive advantage linkedto proactive relations with host communities and adequateprotection of fragile ecosystems. Herein, we describe a casestudy where an international energy production company workedwith stakeholders to achieve social capital and sustainabledevelopment. The strategies aimed to strengthen local capacity toimprove social welfare and to ensure conservation and wise use ofbiodiversity. We provide examples, discuss lessons learned andmake recommendations for future development projects.     

A framework for assessment and monitoring of small mammals in a lowland tropical forest

Development projects in tropical forests can impact biodiversity.Assessment and monitoring programs based on the principles of adaptive management assist managers to identify and reduce suchimpacts. The small mammal community is one important component ofa forest ecosystem that may be impacted by development projects. In 1996, a natural gas exploration project was initiated in a Peruvian rainforest. The Smithsonian Institution's Monitoring andAssessment of Biodiversity program cooperated with Shell Prospecting and Development Peru to establish an adaptive management program to protect the region's biodiversity. In thisarticle, we discuss the role of assessing and monitoring small mammals in relation to the natural gas project. We outline theconceptual issues involved in establishing an assessment andmonitoring program, including setting objectives, evaluating the results and making appropriate decisions. We also summarizethe steps taken to implement the small mammal assessment, provideresults from the assessment and discuss protocols to identifyappropriate species for monitoring.     

Evaluating cumulative effects of small scale hydropower development using GIS modelling and representativeness assessments

Assessing cumulative effects are a vital task for strategic environmental assessments (SEA) but lack of consistent methodology has hampered the development and implementation of useful tools. We present a model for GIS and multivariate analysis to assess the effects on a valued ecosystem type at a regional scale based on the sum of impacts of local projects. We demonstrate application of the model by assessing how hydropower developments would generate cumulative impacts on river gorges for a county in northern Norway. We use principal component analyses (PCA) of spatially-explicit variables from the region to describe the diversity of river gorge ecology with a mathematical low-dimensional bioclimatic space. We then calculate cumulative effects of hydropower development as the proportions of subspaces of the multidimensional bioclimatic PCA that are affected by either existing infrastructure or planned and possible hydropower developments. The results showed that adding development of all potential sites for small-scale hydropower would have substantial impacts on over half of all bioclimatic segments where gorges were registered and more than 70% of all segments with forested river gorges. By demonstrating these possible cumulative effects we can illustrate the need for caution in hydropower planning to avoid reducing river gorge representativeness and diversity. The method can be applied for other types of development projects and other valued ecosystems, provided the assessed ecosystems and development installations can be mapped or modelled over a sufficiently large area.     

Response of soil invertebrates to disturbance across three resource regions in North Carolina

We evaluated the potential of soil microarthropods and enchytraeid worms to be useful as bioindicators of soil condition in forest, wetland, and agricultural ecosystems over a range of ecoregions. Selected mesofauna and soil characteristics in soil and litter in relatively undisturbed and disturbed examples of each of three ecosystems within each of three land resource regions were monitored over two years. Optimal times of year to sample these organisms as indicators of disturbance were April, May, July and September. No single measure reflected disturbance across all three ecosystems. Among forest sites, Simpson's diversity index, evenness, abundance of ants, and proportion of enchytraeids in the mesofauna differed between soils of different disturbance levels. Among agricultural sites, richness, evenness, abundance of mites, and proportions of collembolans and of enchytraeids in the mesofauna differed between disturbance levels. Among wetland sites, Shannon's and Simpson's diversity indices, richness based on the total mesofauna, and abundances of mites, diplurans, ants, and isotomid and onychiurid collembolans differed between disturbance levels. Covariates most frequently associated with abundance and diversity of the measured mesofauna were soil electrical conductivity, available N, organic matter, and pH. Canonical correspondence analysis provided information somewhat different to bivariate analysis. Using both approaches to examine soil and litter taxa that have distinctive responses to disturbance may help to identify candidate groups applicable for use in large-scale environmental monitoring programs.     

Comparing the natural variation of oribatid mite communities with their changes associated with anthropogenic disturbance

Several organism communities serve as ecological and environmental indicators to detect changes in human-impacted habitats. However, the composition of indicator communities may vary because of natural variation in addition to the changes associated with human disturbances. This meta-analysis compared the natural variation of oribatid mite assemblages, a good indicator model group in soil ecosystems, with their deviations associated with disturbance using diversity and dissimilarity indices and three human disturbance types. Literature data were collected about oribatid mite assemblages from natural and disturbed habitats. Human disturbances consisted of agriculture, heavy metal pollution and forest management. Biodiversity indices (Shannon and Berger-Parker) and dissimilarity indices (Jaccard and Bray-Curtis) were calculated among natural habitats and between disturbed and control habitats at the species and genus level. We considered oribatid mite assemblages as effective community-level indicators when the methods separated the differences of assemblages between disturbed and control habitats from their varieties among natural habitats. In addition, the study analysed the correlation between these indices and environmental variables of the study sites. Oribatid mite assemblages performed high indication strength with Bray-Curtis index for agricultural disturbances since dissimilarity values between disturbed and control habitats were as high as between different natural habitats and higher than among the same types of natural habitats. Genus-level values showed similar results to the species level. This approach may be useful to test the effectiveness of other indicator groups and methods.     

Mangrove vulnerability modelling in parts of Western Niger Delta, Nigeria using satellite images, GIS techniques and Spatial Multi-Criteria Analysis (SMCA)

Mangroves are known for their global environmental and socioeconomic value. Despite their importance, mangrove like other ecosystems is now being threatened by natural and human-induced processes that damage them at alarming rates, thereby diminishing the limited number of existing mangrove vegetation. The development of a spatial vulnerability assessment model that takes into consideration environmental and socioeconomic criteria, in spatial and non-spatial formats has been attempted in this study. According to the model, 11 different input parameters are required in modelling mangrove vulnerability. These parameters and their effects on mangrove vulnerability were selected and weighted by experts in the related fields. Criteria identification and selection were mainly based on effects of environmental and socioeconomic changes associated with mangrove survival. The results obtained revealed the dominance of socioeconomic criteria such as population pressure and deforestation, with high vulnerability index of 0.75. The environmental criteria was broadly dispersed in the study area and represents vulnerability indices ranging from 0.00?C0.75. This category reflects the greater influence of pollutant input from oil wells and pipelines and minimal contribution from climatic factors. This project has integrated spatial management framework for mangrove vulnerability assessment that utilises information technology in conjunction with expert knowledge and multi-criteria analysis to aid planners and policy/ decision makers in the protection of this very fragile ecosystem.     

The rising tide: combating coastal pollution

Coastal zones are major hubs for economic and social activity and are in the front line of climate change. To safeguard these fragile ecosystems for our own and future generations we have to move towards more integrated approaches to the assessment and management of coastal and marine environments. Environmental monitoring-broadly defined-has a huge role to play.     

The need for long-term stream monitoring programs in forest ecosystems of the Pacific Northwest

Concepts, planning and design procedures are examined that are needed in the development of long-term stream monitoring programs in forested regions. A long-term stream monitoring program is viewed as the key component for bringing together management organizations, researchers and decision-makers to improve the management of natural resources. The keystones of such ecosystem monitoring are long-term data records that provide the basis for analysis of environmental assessment objectives, predictions and analysis of outcomes which in-turn can be used to modify and improve future projects. Management organizations that initiate long-term monitoring programs are urged to use monitoring actions and information to facilitate decision-making processes that pertain to conserving and allocating resources for future beneficial uses. Recommendations are provided for careful planning and definition of interactive activities of monitoring programs and that should provide information feedbacks that can be used to evaluate issues pertaining to beneficial uses of resources. Procedural requirements and literature sources are suggested for developing long-term stream monitoring programs. They include reviews of background and historical information to provide precise definitions of long-term objectives, planning considerations and monitoring methods. Examples are given of specific procedures that need to be identified during the planning process. They include the application of management standards to variable conditions encountered within natural ecosystems and the detection of the timing of recovery phases of stream ecosystem development following a disturbance. These procedures are viewed as being essential for improving applications of management standards and perceived thresholds to stream and watershed ecosystems monitoring programs.     

Ants as Indicators of Exposure to Environmental Stressors in North American Desert Grasslands

The relative abundance of ant species was measured by pit-fall trapping at 44 sites in southern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona, U.S.A.. Sites were selected for study based on documentation of a history of disturbance or protection from disturbance, exposure to varying intensities of livestock grazing, dominance by an exotic species of plant and vegetation change resulting from disturbance or restoration efforts. Ant community composition, relative abundances of species, and species richness were the same on disturbed and undisturbed sites. None of the metrics based on hypothesized responses of ants to disturbance clearly distinguished between disturbed and undisturbed sites. Ant communities on sites where restoration efforts have resulted in distinct differences in vegetative cover and composition were similar to the ant communities on degraded unrehabilitated sites on the same soil type. Ant communities in riparian cottonwood gallery forests in Arizona and New Mexico were similar but differed from the assemblages in exotic salt cedar and native ash riparian woodlands. Ant species exhibited remarkable resistance to human-induced disturbances in these rangeland areas. In grasslands dominated by the South African grass, Eragrostis lehmanniana Nees, large seed harvesting ants, Pogonomyrmex spp., were greatly reduced in abundance compared to native grasslands. Other ant metrics were not different in E. lehmanniana grasslands and native grasslands. We conclude that ants cannot be used as indicators of exposure to stress, ecosystem health or of rehabilitation success on rangeland ecosystems. Ants are also not useful indicators of faunal biodiversity in rangeland ecosystems.     

Urban green area provides refuge for native small mammal biodiversity in a rapidly expanding city in Ghana

Urbanization is a key driver of global biodiversity loss. Although sub-Saharan African countries are experiencing unprecedented urbanization and urban expansion, very little is known about how this impacts tropical biodiversity. Here, we assessed the effects of urban expansion and urban green space on local small mammal species diversity in Accra, Ghana. We surveyed small mammals in the University of Ghana botanical garden, an urban green area (UGA) and adjoining built-up environment (BE) and compared the results with baseline data (BLD) collected when large areas of the current city still remained mostly undeveloped. The methodology involved live-trapping using Sherman collapsible live-traps. Our data showed higher small mammal abundance and diversity in the UGA than BE. Similarity of species composition was higher between UGA and BLD than between BE and BLD. The small mammal species captured in BE (the rodents Mastomys erythroleucus, Rattus rattus, and Arvicanthis rufinus, and the shrew Crocidura olivieri) are known to easily adapt to human-modified landscapes. Our results suggest that urbanization negatively influenced the abundance, diversity, and community composition of small mammals. Efforts should be directed towards the integration of urban green areas into urban land development planning in developing countries in order to conserve local wildlife and ecological services that enhance the quality of urban life.     

Spending Environmental Expenditure More Effectively: A Case Study from Brisbane, Australia

Growing urbanisation causes pressures on many environmental assets such as groundwater systems, waterways, atmosphere, ecosystems and others. To manage and mitigate the negative effects of these pressures, environmental programs are typically launched, which comprise of eligible projects in different affected locations. The implementation of individual projects has a cost. However, due to budget constraints, most frequently not all suggested projects can be implemented which makes necessary to choose a subset. In this paper, we use a cost utility approach and a subsequent combinatorial optimisation based on metaheuristics to determine a project portfolio which returns a maximum aggregated utility while keeping the budget constraint. To ensure that the mutual exclusiveness of projects at one particular site is guaranteed, we further developed the employed metaheuristics. We apply this approach within a waterway health program in a river catchment in Brisbane, Australia, and compare its results to a commonly used selection process that does not involve combinatorial optimisation. We find that the use of combinatorial optimisation leads to a considerable improvement of the selection process and can help to more effectively allocate environmental expenditure.     

Landscape ecological security assessment based on projection pursuit in Pearl River Delta

Regional landscape ecological security is an important issue for ecological security, and has a great influence on national security and social sustainable development. The Pearl River Delta (PRD) in southern China has experienced rapid economic development and intensive human activities in recent years. This study, based on landscape analysis, provides a method to discover the alteration of character among different landscape types and to understand the landscape ecological security status. Based on remotely sensed products of the Landsat 5 TM images in 1990 and the Landsat 7 ETM+ images in 2005, landscape classification maps of nine cities in the PRD were compiled by implementing Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System technology. Several indices, including aggregation, crush index, landscape shape index, Shannon’s diversity index, landscape fragile index, and landscape security adjacent index, were applied to analyze spatial–temporal characteristics of landscape patterns in the PRD. A landscape ecological security index based on these outcomes was calculated by projection pursuit using genetic algorithm. The landscape ecological security of nine cities in the PRD was thus evaluated. The main results of this research are listed as follows: (1) from 1990 to 2005, the aggregation index, crush index, landscape shape index, and Shannon’s diversity index of nine cities changed little in the PRD, while the landscape fragile index and landscape security adjacent index changed obviously. The landscape fragile index of nine cities showed a decreasing trend; however, the landscape security adjacent index has been increasing; (2) from 1990 to 2005, landscape ecology of the cities of Zhuhai and Huizhou maintained a good security situation. However, there was a relatively low value of ecological security in the cities of Dongguan and Foshan. Except for Foshan and Guangzhou, whose landscape ecological security situation were slightly improved, the cities had reduced values in landscape ecological security, with the most decreased number 0.52 in Zhaoqing. Results of this study offer important information for regional eco-construction and natural resource exploitation.     

System dynamic simulation: A new method in social impact assessment (SIA)

Many complex social questions are difficult to address adequately with conventional methods and techniques, due to the complicated dynamics, and hard to quantify social processes. Despite these difficulties researchers and practitioners have attempted to use conventional methods not only in evaluative modes but also in predictive modes to inform decision making. The effectiveness of SIAs would be increased if they were used to support the project design processes. This requires deliberate use of lessons from retrospective assessments to inform predictive assessments. Social simulations may be a useful tool for developing a predictive SIA method. There have been limited attempts to develop computer simulations that allow social impacts to be explored and understood before implementing development projects. In light of this argument, this paper aims to introduce system dynamic (SD) simulation as a new predictive SIA method in large development projects. We propose the potential value of the SD approach to simulate social impacts of development projects. We use data from the SIA of Gareh-Bygone floodwater spreading project to illustrate the potential of SD simulation in SIA. It was concluded that in comparison to traditional SIA methods SD simulation can integrate quantitative and qualitative inputs from different sources and methods and provides a more effective and dynamic assessment of social impacts for development projects. We recommend future research to investigate the full potential of SD in SIA in comparing different situations and scenarios.     

山水林田湖草生态保护修复江苏实践与思考

“实施山水林田湖草生态保护和修复工程，全面提升自然生态系统稳定性和生态服务功能”是习近平生态文明思想的重要创新成果，为开展生态环境保护修复工作提供了重要指引和根本遵循。2019年以来，江苏省开展山水林田湖草生态保护修复省级试点工程共5类59个工程项目。在总结了试点地区工作经验做法的基础上，针对存在的生态保护修复和绿色发展协同理念认识不足、生态修复保护整体性和系统性不够、生态修复经验总结及全周期管理有待加强、打破界限的体制机制改革创新亟需完善等问题及难点，提出了相应的工作政策建议，以期打造全国生态保护修复的江苏样板。     

Multimetric Assessment of Nutrient Enrichment in Impounded Rivers Based on Benthic Macroinvertebrates

In this investigation we evaluated the performance of multiple metrics, based on benthic macroinvertebrates, to assess nutrient enrichment in impounded rivers. Field studies were conducted in the upper reaches of four impounded mountain rivers (Tormes, Riaza, Eresma and Miraflores Rivers) of Central Spain. The watersheds of these rivers are underlain by siliceous rocks. Two sampling sites, upstream and downstream from the reservoir, were established in stony riffles of each impounded river. We used a total of 34 metrics, representing five different metric groups: measures of abundance and richness, percentages of taxonomic groups, percentages of functional feeding groups, measures of dominance and diversity, and biotic indices. Evaluation of different metrics was mainly based on correlation analyses between concentrations of nutrients (NO3-N, NH4-N, PO4-P) and values of individual metrics. Deep releases from the reservoirs were the primary cause responsible for the nutrient enrichment at downstream sampling sites. Chironomidae density, Gastropoda density, % Chironomidae, % Gastropoda, % collector-gatherers and scrapers, proportion of the two most dominant taxa, and Camargo's dominance index exhibited the highest positive correlation coefficients. Conversely, Plecoptera density, Trichoptera density, EPT richness, % Plecoptera, % Trichoptera, % collector-filterers, % predators, % shredders, Simpson's and Camargo's diversity indices, and the average BMWQ score (biotic index) exhibited the highest negative correlation coefficients. Overall it is concluded that the multimetric approach may be a useful technique for the biological assessment of nutrient enrichment in fluvial ecosystems, particularly in upper reaches of siliceous rivers.     

An assessment and monitoring program for birds in the Lower Urubamba region,Peru

We developed an assessment and monitoring plan for birds in connection with the exploration and potential development of a large natural gas field in the Lower Urubamba drainage of Peru, a project of Shell Prospecting and Development Peru (SPDP). Our objectives were to: (1) inventory the birds in the area, including information on habitat use and abundance, and (2) devise long-term monitoring protocols for birds. We sampled birds through a combination of visual and auditory surveys and mist-netting at 4 well sites and 3 sites along the Urubamba and Camisea rivers. We recorded 420 speciesduring 135 days of field work. We consider the highest prioritiesfor a future monitoring program to be: (1) establish whether edge effects are occurring at well sites, along roads and alongthe planned pipeline route and determine the significance and extent of these effects and (2) assess the impact of increased human access to the area on game and other exploited species. The remoteness of the area, its rugged terrain and dense vegetation and the lack of trained personnel limit the choice of survey and monitoring methods. We recommend use of mist-netting and transects for monitoring edge effects and useof transects for monitoring game and other exploited species.     

A multi-scale metrics approach to forest fragmentation for Strategic Environmental Impact Assessment

Forests are becoming severely fragmented as a result of land development. South Korea has responded to changing community concerns about environmental issues. The nation has developed and is extending a broad range of tools for use in environmental management. Although legally mandated environmental compliance requirements in South Korea have been implemented to predict and evaluate the impacts of land-development projects, these legal instruments are often insufficient to assess the subsequent impact of development on the surrounding forests. It is especially difficult to examine impacts on multiple (e.g., regional and local) scales in detail. Forest configuration and size, including forest fragmentation by land development, are considered on a regional scale. Moreover, forest structure and composition, including biodiversity, are considered on a local scale in the Environmental Impact Assessment process. Recently, the government amended the Environmental Impact Assessment Act, including the SEA, EIA, and small-scale EIA, to require an integrated approach. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to establish an impact assessment system that minimizes the impacts of land development using an approach that is integrated across multiple scales.This study focused on forest fragmentation due to residential development and road construction sites in selected Congestion Restraint Zones (CRZs) in the Greater Seoul Area of South Korea. Based on a review of multiple-scale impacts, this paper integrates models that assess the impacts of land development on forest ecosystems. The applicability of the integrated model for assessing impacts on forest ecosystems through the SEIA process is considered.On a regional scale, it is possible to evaluate the location and size of a land-development project by considering aspects of forest fragmentation, such as the stability of the forest structure and the degree of fragmentation. On a local scale, land-development projects should consider the distances at which impacts occur in the vicinity of the forest ecosystem, and these considerations should include the impacts on forest vegetation and bird species. Impacts can be mitigated by considering the distances at which these influences occur. In particular, this paper presents an integrated environmental impact assessment system to be applied in the SEIA process. The integrated assessment system permits the assessment of the cumulative impacts of land development on multiple scales.     

Biodiversity and bird surveys in Finnish environmental impact assessments and follow-up monitoring

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) that are applied in the planning phases of large land-use and construction projects are aimed at aiding decision-making and mitigating significant environmental impacts. In light of the global biodiversity crisis, conducting high-quality biodiversity impact assessments is important, as biodiversity information, among other factors, has the potential to influence how projects will be implemented in the end. We investigated the biodiversity and bird surveys conducted and the number of bird species of conservation concern in peat extraction and wind farm projects to which an EIA was applied to in 1995–2016 in Finland and compared whether these factors differed between the project types and between implemented and unimplemented projects. We also studied the availability of follow-up monitoring data of biodiversity impacts within the two project types. The number of nationally threatened breeding birds was significantly lower in implemented than in unimplemented peat extraction projects. The overall probability of being implemented was significantly negatively associated with the year the EIA began for both project types. All permitted peat extraction projects and 22% of wind farm projects conducted post-construction biodiversity monitoring; however, only some projects enabled before-after comparisons. Our results are in line with earlier findings that demonstrate the difficulty of showing the direct impacts of biodiversity information on EIA decision-making and to what extent it is related to project approval or rejection. The role of follow-up monitoring in the EIA and project development could also be strengthened.     

The corporate impact of addressing social issues: a financial case study of a project in Peru

Large, multinational resource development projects can affectmany aspects, including social, economic and ecological realities, in the regions where they operate. Social and environmental issues that are usually ignored in such projectsare increasingly affecting the financial future of multinationalcorporations in negative ways. In this article, we advance the argument that corporations can successfully manage these issuesand that if they choose to view these management efforts as an investment rather than an expense, they may well acquire a competitive advantage over companies that do not. We describe asa case study the Camisea natural gas and condensates developmentproject in Peru, operated by Shell Prospecting and Development Peru (SPDP). Camisea is one of the first projects anywhere inthe world to conduct a detailed analysis of key industry-relatedsocial issues and the processes, required investment and financial impact of managing them. The Camisea example supportsthe argument that addressing social and environmental concerns makes financial sense. In present value terms, the benefit ofmanaging these concerns was expected to surpass the cost investment by approximately US$50 million.     

On a Holistic Modeling Approach for Managing Carbon Emission Ecosystems

Effective use of historical volumes of heterogeneous and multidimensional data is a major challenge, especially projects associated with potential applications of carbon emission ecosystems. Data science in these applications becomes tedious when such varied data are accumulated and or distributed in multiple domains. Design, development, and implementation of sustainable geological storages are crucial for managing carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and its modeling process. The purpose of the research is to address major challenges and how best a robust “ontology-based multidimensional data warehousing and mining” approach can resolve issues associated with carbon ecosystems. The conceptualized relationships deduced among multiple domains, integration of domain ontologies, data mining, visualization, and interpretation artefacts are highlights of the study. Several data, plot, and map views are extracted from metadata storage for interpreting new knowledge on carbon emissions. Statistical mining models describe data attributes’ correlations, patterns, and trends that can help in predicting future forecast of CO₂ emissions worldwide.