Importance of indirect nitrous oxide emissions at the field, farm and catchment scale

Direct and indirect nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions and leaching losses from an intensively managed grazed pasture in the Ythan catchment, Aberdeenshire, UK, were measured and compared over a 17-month period. Simultaneous measurements of farm-wide leaching losses of N₂O were also made and catchment-wide fluxes were estimated from existing N leaching data. The relative importance of direct and indirect N₂O fluxes at the field, farm and catchment scale was then assessed. At the field scale we found that direct N₂O emissions were low (1.2 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, 0.6% of N input) with indirect N₂O emissions via drainage waters comprising a significant proportion (25%) of total N₂O emissions. At the whole-farm scale, the N₂O-N emission factor (0.003) for leached NO₃-N (EF_5-g) was in line with the IPCC's recent downward revision. At the catchment scale, a direct N₂O flux of 1.9 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ and an indirect flux of 0.06 kg N₂O-N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ were estimated. This study lends further support to the recent downward revision of the IPCC emission factor for N₂O arising from leached N in surface and ground waters (EF_5-g) and highlights the need for multiple point sampling to ensure that the importance of indirect N₂O losses via drainage waters is not misrepresented at the farm and catchment scales.     

Modelling the N cascade in regional watersheds: The case study of the Seine, Somme and Scheldt rivers

The watersheds of the Seine, Somme and Scheldt rivers (France, Belgium, the Netherlands), flowing into the continental coastal zone of the English Channel and Southern North Sea, are among the regions of the world with the highest anthropogenic inputs of reactive nitrogen through fertilizer use, legume fixation and deposition of atmospheric nitrogen. They also represent examples of widely open systems, either exporting a large fraction of their N inputs under the form of agricultural products (case of the Seine basin) or importing high amounts of nitrogen as feed for livestock nutrition (case of the Scheldt basin), and delivering up to 2000 kg N km⁻² yr⁻¹ at river outlet into the sea. Taking these three watersheds as a case study, we review the different approaches developed so far for describing and predicting the fate of reactive nitrogen inputs to regional systems and its cascade from soils to sea. These approaches range from simple lumped input–output budget, to detailed process-based, spatially distributed models of nutrient transfers. The merits and the limits of these approaches are discussed. Their combination allows to establish a reasonably consistent budget for the three basins, emphasizing the various ‘retention’ terms linked to both landscape and in-stream processes, including storage in long residence time compartments (soil organic matter, vadose zone, aquifers, etc.), denitrification (in soil, riparian zones or river benthos) or sediment burial. Root-zone and riparian denitrification processes appear as major terms of landscape retention in all three investigated watersheds. Retention of nitrogen associated with collection and treatment of urban wastewater is also a major term in the two most populated watersheds.     

High fluxes but different patterns of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide emissions from soil in a cattle overwintering area

Cattle overwintering areas common in central Europe may represent significant point sources of the important greenhouse gases, nitrous oxide (N₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). A 2-year field study was carried out in order to estimate the emissions of N₂O and CO₂ from soil in a cattle overwintering area located in the southwest of the Czech Republic. The measurements were performed at three sampling locations along a gradient of animal impact (severe, moderate, slight) to test the hypothesis that emissions of CO₂ and N₂O are positively related to the degree of impact. In addition to CO₂ and N₂O fluxes determined by using non-vented manual closed chambers, soil mineral nitrogen (NH₄⁺ and NO₃⁻), pH and temperature were determined to assess their regulatory role and impact on gas fluxes. The overwintering area was about 4 ha and it had been used for overwintering of about 90 cows since 1995. Deposition of animal excreta resulted in a significant accumulation of nitrogen in the soil during winter, but most of the N₂O was emitted during a few short periods in spring and/or in late autumn. Maximum N₂O fluxes of up to 2.5 mg N₂O-N m⁻² h⁻¹ were recorded at the most impacted location near the animal house, where the highest concentrations of soil mineral nitrogen also occurred. The emissions of CO₂ showed a completely different pattern to those of N₂O, being correlated with soil temperature; the highest emissions thus occurred in June–July, while very low fluxes were found in winter. Emission values ranged from about 0 to 700 mg C-CO₂ m⁻² h⁻¹. Furthermore, the effect of animal impact on CO₂ emissions was opposite to that on N₂O fluxes, as the highest CO₂ fluxes were mostly recorded at the least impacted location, where respiration of plants most likely increased overall CO₂ production. The results show that cattle overwintering areas are important sources of greenhouse gases, including N₂O and CO₂. Fluxes of these two gases are, however, differently distributed over the year, which also suggests that they are controlled by different environmental and soil factors.     

咸水滴灌对棉田土壤N2O排放和反硝化细菌群落结构的影响

淡水资源短缺是干旱区农业可持续发展所面临的严峻问题,合理利用咸水灌溉是缓解淡水资源不足的重要手段.长期咸水灌溉会导致土壤盐分积累,进而影响氮素的转化和N_2O的排放.本研究通过10 a咸水灌溉试验,探究咸水灌溉对棉田土壤N_2O排放、反硝化细菌丰度和群落结构组成的影响.试验采用灌溉水盐度和施氮量两因子2×2随机区组设计,其中灌溉水盐度(以电导率表示)设置2个水平:0.35 dS·m~(-1)和8.04 dS·m~(-1),施氮量设2个水平:0 kg·hm~(-2)和360 kg·hm~(-2)(分别用SFN0、SHN0、SFN360和SHN360表示).结果表明,长期咸水滴灌棉田土壤盐分、含水量和NH~+_4-N含量显著增加,pH值、NO~-_3-N、有机质和全氮含量显著降低.咸水灌溉处理显著抑制N_2O排放,不施氮肥和施氮肥处理下分别较淡水灌溉降低45.19%和43.50%.氮肥施用显著增加N_2O排放,施肥处理N_2O排放较不施肥处理增加161%.不施肥条件下,咸水灌溉显著降低反硝化酶活性、nirK、nirS和nosZ基因丰度,α多样性.施肥条件下,咸水灌溉对nosZ型反硝化细菌的丰度无显著影响,但显著降低反硝化酶活性和nirK、nirS基因丰度.咸水灌溉和氮肥施用共同改变nirK、nirS和nosZ型反硝化细菌群落结构,灌溉水盐度对于反硝化细菌群落结构的影响要大于施肥.Lefse分析显示nirK、nirS和nsoZ型反硝化细菌差异物种随着灌溉水盐度的增加而增加,咸水灌溉显著改变反硝化细菌群落结构,导致优势种群数量增加.上述结果表明,长期咸水灌溉降低土壤N_2O排放,但会导致土壤盐分的持续上升,nosZ、nirK和nirS丰度的增加会促进N_2O排放.     

Model evaluation of different mechanisms driving freeze–thaw N2O emissions

N₂O emissions from soil contribute significantly to global warming. Pulse emissions of N₂O from soils during freeze-thawing were recently recognized as important atmospheric sources. In this modelling study we explore three different hypotheses for explaining freeze–thaw related N₂O emissions: (1) soil frost or snow cover may reduce gas diffusion and create anaerobic conditions that stimulate N₂O production via denitrification, (2) microbes that die of frost deliver easy decomposable organic carbon and nitrogen to the soil, which stimulates microbial growth and vigorous N₂O production during freeze–thaw, and (3) the enzyme nitrous oxide reductase, which is responsible for the reduction of N₂O to N₂ during denitrification, is more sensitive to low temperatures than other enzymes, so that N₂O becomes the dominating end-product of denitrification at low temperatures. These hypotheses were tested with a biogeochemical model that combines hydrology and physics calculations with a newly developed, parameter-poor biochemistry module. The model was first calibrated with field datasets on soil–atmosphere fluxes of N₂O, NO and CO₂ and soil NO₃ and NH₄ concentrations that were measured in a spruce forest in Southeast Germany in the years 1994–1997. Subsequently, additional model mechanisms were implemented that allow the model to describe the outlined mechanisms potentially driving freeze–thaw N₂O fluxes. After each implementation the model was recalibrated. We were able to mimic dimension and timing of high N₂O emissions when either one of the first two hypotheses were assumed, but found no confirmation for the third. The best model fit was achieved by combining hypothesis one and two, indicating that freeze–thaw N₂O emissions are not mono-causal.     

厌氧条件下砂壤水稻土N2、N2O、NO、CO2和CH4排放特征

了解厌氧条件土壤反硝化气体(N2、N2O和NO)、CO2和CH4排放特征,是认识反硝化过程机制的基础,并有助于制定合理的温室气体减排措施.定量反硝化产物组成,可为氮转化过程模型研发制定正确的关键过程参数选取方法或参数化方案.本研究选取质地相同(砂壤土)的两个水稻土为研究对象,通过添加KNO3和葡萄糖的混合溶液,将培养土壤的初始NO-3和DOC含量分别调节到50 mg·kg-1和300 mg·kg-1,采用氦环境培养-气体及碳氮底物直接同步测定方法,研究完全厌氧条件下土壤N2、N2O、NO、CO2和CH4的排放特征,并获得反硝化气态产物中各组分的比率.结果表明,在整个培养过程中,两个供试土壤的N2、N2O和NO累积排放量分别为6~8、20和15~18 mg·kg-1,这些气体排放量测定结果可回收土壤NO-3变化量的95%~98%,反硝化气态产物以N2O和NO为主,其中3种组分的比率分别为15%~19%(N2)、47%~49%(N2O)和34%~36%(NO);但反硝化气体产物组成的逐日动态均显现为从以NO为主逐渐过渡到以N2O为主,最后才发展到以N2为主.以上结果说明,反硝化气体产物组成是随反硝化进程而变化的,在以气体产物组成比率作为关键参数计算各种反硝化气体产生率或排放率的模型中,很有必要重视这一点.     

Sheepfolds as “hotspots” of nitric oxide (NO) emission in an Inner Mongolian steppe

We investigated nitric oxide (NO) fluxes at a summer and a winter sheepfold in the Baiyinxile livestock farm, near Xilinhot, Inner Mongolia, which are a typical feature of the regional husbandry. Using a manual static opaque chamber/chemiluminescence measuring system, we intermittently observed fluxes in the summer sheepfold between May 28th and September 26th 2005 and in both winter and summer sheepfolds between March 8th and October 18th 2006. During these periods, mean NO emissions (±S.E., in terms of mass of nitrogen) were 124.0 ± 28.7, 134.6 ± 23.3 (summer sheepfold) and 214.4 ± 79.6 μg NO–N m⁻² h⁻¹ (winter sheepfold), respectively, and thus, three magnitudes higher than observed steppe NO emissions in the same region. The NO fluxes were not significantly different between the 2 years, but in summer they were much higher than in spring (p < 0.05). Temperature and moisture of the faeces layer significantly regulated the NO fluxes (p < 0.01). The direct NO emission factor (EF) for faeces and urine excreted in the sheepfolds was 0.7 g NO–N_emitted kg⁻¹ N_excreted, which was almost 37 times lower than a recently reported N₂O EF. We estimated the total NO emission from the sheepfolds of the Baiyinxile livestock farm to be 1.82 ± 0.43 tons NO–N year⁻¹, which accounts to approximately 12.3% of the total NO emission from this steppe region. With the rapid increase of livestock numbers, sheepfold NO emissions may further increase and contribute to high N deposition in confined areas around sheepfolds.     

高盐高碱环境下硝化反硝化过程及N2O产生特征

采用稳定运行在高盐高碱环境厌氧/好氧/缺氧(A_n/O/A)模式下的序批式生物膜反应器(SBBR),考察在不同碳氮比(C/N)条件下,硝化反硝化过程及N_2O产生特征.结果表明,在C/N为5、2和对照组(C/N=0)时,总氮去除率分别为(98. 17±0. 42)%、(65. 78±2. 47)%和(44. 08±0. 27)%; N_2O的产生量分别为(32. 07±2. 03)、(21. 81±0. 85)和(17. 32±0. 95) mg·L~(-1); N_2O转化率(N_2O产生量在去除总氮中的比例)分别为(29. 75±0. 93)%、(30. 04±2. 17)%和(41. 69±0. 80)%.高盐高碱条件下,亚硝酸盐氧化菌(NOB)受到很强的抑制作用,硝化过程基本停留在亚硝酸盐阶段.由于高盐高碱环境对N_2O还原酶活性的抑制,使得异养反硝化过程产生了大量N_2O,随着碳氮比的增大,有更多的碳源用于反硝化过程,因而总氮去除率和N_2O产生量均随之增加.随着碳氮比的增大,N_2O转化率随之降低,这可能是由于异养反硝化过程氮素还原酶对电子的竞争所形成的,碳氮比越高,电子竞争越弱.高通量测序表明:在SBBR中,氨氧化细菌(AOB)被富集,而几乎不存在NOB;优势异养反硝化菌属主要是Thauera、Azoarcus和Gemmobacter.     

土壤化学反硝化及N2O产生机理研究进展

传统观点认为土壤氮素转化要有微生物的参与,但越来越多的研究发现,非生物转化在一些特定条件下同样发挥着不可忽略的作用,该途径下N₂O产生量甚至超过生物学过程而占主导作用.作为一种重要的非生物土壤氮素转化方式,化学反硝化产生途径虽然已经被发现近一个世纪,但在现代生态学研究中通常因研究分散而往往被忽视.鉴于此,对土壤化学反硝化及N₂O产生机制、影响因素的研究进展进行总结,并对化学反硝化的不足和薄弱环节提出展望.结果表明:土壤化学反硝化及N₂O产生的机制主要包括高价氮还原和羟胺分解两种作用;影响土壤化学反硝化的因素主要包括pH、温度、反应底物浓度、有机质、固相界面及金属离子,如高pH、固相界面和Cu2+的存在均会促进化学反硝化过程;不同形态Fe直接参与化学反硝化生成N₂O的途径不同,主要包括Fe2+还原NO₂-和NO₃-,Fe3+氧化NH₂OH.然而,现有研究对于化学反硝化机理的边界划分等问题仍不明确,因此,建议强化羟胺在土壤化学反硝化途径中作用机理的基础性研究,以及多因素综合影响下化学反硝化强度和N₂O产生特征方面的应用性研究.      

Effect of fertilization and irrigation schedule on water and fertilizer solute transport for wheat crop in a sub-humid sub-tropical region

In order to increase the water and fertilizer use efficiency and decrease the losses of water and fertilizer solutes (N and P), it is necessary to assess the influence of level of fertilization and irrigation schedule on movement and balance of water and fertilizers in the root zone. With this goal, the reported study was undertaken to determine the effect of fertilization and irrigation schedule on water movement and fertilizer solute transport in wheat crop field in a sub-tropical sub-humid region. Field experiments were conducted on wheat crop of cultivar Sonalika (Triticum aestivum L.) during the years 2002–2003, 2003–2004 and 2004–2005. Each experiment consisted of four fertilizer treatments and three irrigation treatments during the wheat growth period. During the experiment, the irrigation treatments were: I₁ = 10% maximum allowable depletion (MAD) of available soil water (ASW); I₂ = 40% MAD of ASW; I₃ = 60% MAD of ASW. The fertilizer treatments during the experiment were: F₁ = control treatment with N:P₂O₅:K₂O as 0:0:0 kg ha⁻¹; F₂ = fertilizer application of N:P₂O₅:K₂O as 80:40:40 kg ha⁻¹; F₃ = fertilizer application of N:P₂O₅:K₂O as 120:60:60 kg ha⁻¹ and F₄ = fertilizer application of N:P₂O₅:K₂O as 160:80:80 kg ha⁻¹. The results of the investigation revealed that low volume high frequency irrigation results in higher deep percolation losses than the low frequency high volume irrigation with different levels of fertilization for wheat crop in coarse lateritic soil, whereas different levels of fertilization did not significantly affect soil water balance of the wheat crop root zone during all the irrigation schedules. Level of fertilization and irrigation schedule had significant effect on nitrogen leaching loss whereas irrigation schedules had no significant effect on nitrogen uptake under different levels of fertilization. On the other hand, the leaching loss of phosphorus was not significantly influenced by the irrigation schedule and level of fertilization of wheat crop. This indicated that PO₄–P leaching loss was very low in the soil solution as compared to nitrogen due to fixation of phosphorus in soils. From the observed data of nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiency, it was revealed that irrigation schedule with 40% maximum allowable depletion of available soil water with F₂ fertilizer treatment (N:P₂O₅:K₂O as 80:40:40 kg ha⁻¹) was the threshold limit for wheat crop with respect to nitrogen and phosphorus use, crop yield and environmental pollution.     

Effect of diet manipulation in dairy cow N balance and nitrogen oxides emissions from grasslands in northern Spain

Dietary modifications in dairy cattle have been reported as a useful strategy to alter the composition of manure. Many reports have been published on how changes in dietary crude protein content and forage-to-concentrate ratio reduces animal nitrogen (N) excretion, but little information exists about the effect of diet modification on nitrous oxide (N₂O) and nitric oxide (NO) emission when the subsequent slurry is applied on grassland. Two diets differing in forage:concentrate ratio (high forage or HF diet, 75:25; low forage or LF diet, 55:45) were tested to detect the improvement of N use efficiency in milk and the reduction of urinary and fecal N excretion. Triticale silage and barley grain were used as the main forage and concentrate sources in the diets. The subsequent slurries were characterized for N and ammonium-N content (NH₄⁺-N) and applied on grassland in order to study total and pattern of emission of N₂O and NO.The HF diet reduced the voluntary dry matter intake of the cows, N intake and urinary and fecal N excretion. However, the reduction of N intake did not improve the N use efficiency in milk (NUE) (21.0%) and did not reduce N excretion per unit of milk produced (15 g N l⁻¹) due to the lower milk yield. Slurries were similar in N content but differed in NH₄⁺ content, being lower in HF. Therefore, different slurry amounts were needed to be applied on grassland to reach the correct fertilisation rate (120 kg NH₄⁺-N ha⁻¹). Total emissions of N₂O (5.8 and 5.0 kg N₂O-N ha⁻¹) and NO (507.2 and 568.6 g NO-N ha⁻¹), and the pattern of emissions were not affected by dietary treatments. When fertilisation management depends on the collected volume to empty the slurry pit, higher N₂O and NO emissions per kg of slurry could be expected from LF slurry. Nevertheless, if slurry is applied following recommendation rates, N₂O and NO emission per unit of milk produced might be slightly lower from LF slurry. Grass yield (1.5 t dry matter ha⁻¹) and N uptake (50 kg N ha⁻¹) did not vary due to the applications of different slurries, and was attributed to low rainfalls. The correct management of the slurries on grasslands may justify an adequate nutritional strategy of dairy herds from an environmental and productive point of view.     

Gaseous emissions from weaned pigs raised on different floor systems

Gaseous emissions from agriculture contribute to a number of environmental effects. Carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) are greenhouse gases taking part to the global problem of climate change. Ammonia (NH₃) emissions are responsible of soil acidification and eutrophication and contribute also to indirect emissions of N₂O. This work evaluated the influence of the type of floor on the emissions of these gases in the raising of weaned pigs. Two trials were carried out. In the first trial, the animals were kept either on fully slatted floor or on straw-based deep litter and, in the second one, either on fully slatted floor or on sawdust-based deep litter. For each trial and on each type of floor, 2 successive batches of weaned pigs were raised without changing the litter or emptying the slurry pit between the 2 batches. The rooms were automatically ventilated to maintain a constant ambient temperature.The performance of the animals was not significantly different according to the floor type. In trial 1, the nitrogen contents of the straw deep litter (including the substrate) and slurry were respectively 276 and 389 g pig⁻¹. In trial 2, the sawdust deep litter and slurry nitrogen contents were respectively 122 and 318 g pig⁻¹.Raising pigs on straw deep litter produced proportionately around 100% more NH₃ than raising pigs on slatted floor (0.61 g NH₃-N d⁻¹ pig⁻¹ vs. 0.31 g NH₃-N d⁻¹ pig⁻¹; P < 0.05). Differences in CO₂, H₂O and CH₄ emissions were not significant between systems. Raising pigs on sawdust deep litter produced also proportionately more NH₃ (+52%; 0.55 g NH₃-N d⁻¹ pig⁻¹ vs. 0.36 g NH₃-N d⁻¹ pig⁻¹; P < 0.01) but also more CO₂ (+25%; 427 g d⁻¹ pig⁻¹ vs. 341 g d⁻¹ pig⁻¹; P < 0.001) and H₂O (+65%; 981 g d⁻¹ pig⁻¹ vs. 593 g d⁻¹ pig⁻¹; P < 0.001) and less CH₄ (−40%; 0.52 g d⁻¹ pig⁻¹ vs. 0.86 g d⁻¹ pig⁻¹; P < 0.001) than raising pigs on slatted floor. Practically no N₂O emission was observed from rooms with slatted floor while the N₂O emissions were 0.03 and 0.32 g N₂O-N d⁻¹ pig⁻¹ for the straw and sawdust deep litter respectively. The warming potential of the greenhouse gases (N₂O + CH₄), were about 22, 34 and 168 g CO₂ equivalents per day and per pig on fully slatted floor, straw or sawdust deep litter respectively.In conclusion, pollutant gas emissions from rearing of weaned pig seem lower with fully slatted plastic floor system than with deep litter systems.     

凤眼莲对富营养化水体硝化、反硝化脱氮释放N2O的影响

以往有关大型水生漂浮植物消减富营养化水体氮(N)的研究主要侧重于植物对N的吸收效果,而忽略了硝化、反硝化反应途径对水体脱氮的贡献.基于此,本研究中借助具创新性的收集凤眼莲种植水体释放N₂O的装置和方法,通过模拟实验研究了凤眼莲对富营养化水体硝化、反硝化脱氮中间产物N₂O的影响.结果表明,凤眼莲可以促进富营养化水体的硝化、反硝化、成对硝化-反硝化反应过程,在本实验条件下凤眼莲种植水体在整个培养期内释放的N₂O气体浓度累积升高幅度较大,为453~4055 nL·L^-1(未加硝化抑制剂处理),通过释放N₂O而脱除氮素的量占整个水体N消减量的1.36%,为相应未种植凤眼莲水体的4.31倍.种植凤眼莲水体试验期间释放N₂O-N的量与水体氨态氮或硝态氮浓度的变化量均存在显著相关关系(p<0.05),说明N₂O释放量受到水体中NH₄⁺、NO₃^-浓度变化的影响.种植凤眼莲在实验中后期可以增加水体中硝化、反硝化细菌的数量,但其数量远低于凤眼莲根系附着的硝化反硝化细菌.水体中反硝化细菌数量与水体释放N₂O浓度之间并无显著相关性,说明种植凤眼莲水体反硝化脱氮释放N₂O过程可能主要是由根系共生微生物驱动的.     

外源氮输入对不同土地利用排水沟底泥反硝化和N2O排放影响

农田排水沟通过底泥硝化-反硝过程可消纳部分农业面源氮.水稻、蔬菜和水果是太湖地区种植业的主要土地利用类型,各种植区排水河沟密布,且不同种植区沟道接受外源氮差异明显,直接影响沟道消纳氮能力.分别采集太湖地区果园、稻田和菜地种植区排水沟道沉积物,设计上覆水N0、N1、N2、N3和N4这5个外源NO-3-N输入梯度,净氮输入量分别为0、0.5、1.0、5.0和10 mg·L~(-1),开展室内培养试验,研究外源氮输入对不同土地利用区排水沟道底泥反硝化和N2O排放的影响.结果表明,外源氮输入激发了排水沟底泥反硝化作用,3条沟道底泥反硝化速率均随上覆水NO-3-N输入浓度增大显著增大(P0.05),底泥累积反硝化量与输入NO-3-N浓度呈显著线性正相关关系(R20.75);除菜地外,沟道底泥N2O排放速率和累积排放量随外源NO-3-N输入浓度增大均无显著增大趋势(P0.05).在无外源氮或低外源氮输入时(N0和N1),果园、菜地和稻田种植区3种沟道之间底泥反硝化和N2O排放累积损失氮量的差异不显著(P0.05).随NO-3-N输入浓度增大,特别是高外源氮输入(N3和N4)条件下,果园和稻田排水沟道底泥反硝化消纳氮量显著高于菜地沟道底泥反硝化损失氮量(P0.05),而菜地排水沟底泥N2O排放损失氮量显著高于其它2条沟道底泥的N2O排放损失氮量(P0.05).排水沟底泥有机碳矿化速率与反硝化损失速率成正相关关系(n=15),微生物矿化(CO2-C)作用促进了沟道底泥硝化反硝过程.     

Denitrification on Andosols in an intensive dairy farming region of central Japan

Evaluation of denitrification capacities is necessary to develop a sustainable manure management system in order to reduce NO₃⁻ leaching and N₂O emissions from agricultural soils. Denitrification rates were measured using the acetylene inhibition technique on intact soil cores from eight Andosols under three different cropping systems in an intensive livestock catchment of central Japan. The N application rates ranged from 200 to 800 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. The denitrification rates were highly variable across fields, and were influenced significantly by land uses and manure forms. Compared with upland fields, paddy rice fields had a greater denitrification rate up to 1380 and 85 mg N m⁻² day⁻¹ in the top 30-cm soil layer during flooding and non-flooding periods, respectively. In upland fields, the maximum value for the top 30-cm soils was 44 mg N m⁻² day⁻¹ and most of the rates were less than 10 mg N m⁻² day⁻¹. The greater denitrification rates were often associated with slurry application rather than composted dry manure. Overall, denitrification from Andosols in this study displayed a lower capacity than that of non-Andosols.     

An inhibitor of urease activity effectively reduces ammonia emissions from soil treated with urea under Mediterranean conditions

Urea is an important source of ammonia (NH₃) emissions to the atmosphere from agricultural soils. Abatement strategies are necessary in order to achieve NH₃ emission targets by reducing those emissions. In this context, a field experiment was carried out on a sunflower crop in spring 2006 with the aim of evaluating the effect of the N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) in the mitigation of volatilized NH₃ from a urea-fertilised soil. Ammonia emission was quantified, using the integrated horizontal flux (IHF) method, following application of urea with and without the urease inhibitor NBPT. Urea and a mixture of urea and NBPT (0.14%, w/w) were surface-applied at a rate of 170 kg N ha⁻¹ to circular plots (diameter 40 m). The soil was irrigated with 10 mm of water just after the application of urea to dissolve and incorporate it into the upper layer of soil. Over the duration of the measurement period (36 days) three peaks of NH₃ were observed. The first peak was associated with hydrolysis of urea after irrigation and the others with the increase of ammonia in soil solution after changes in atmospheric variables such as wind speed and rainfall. The total NH₃ emission during the whole experiment was 17.3 ± 0.5 kg NH₃–N ha⁻¹ in the case of urea treated soils and 10.0 ± 2.2 kg NH₃–N ha⁻¹ where NBPT was included with the urea (10.1 and 5.9%, respectively, of the applied urea–N). The lower NH₃ emissions from plots fertilised with urea + NBPT, compared with urea alone, were associated with a reduction in urease activity during the first 9 days after inhibitor application. This reduction in enzymatic activity promoted a decrease in the exchangeable NH₄⁺ pool.     

Atmospheric deposition contributes little nutrient and sediment to stream flow from an agricultural watershed

Atmospheric deposition of nutrients within agricultural watersheds has received scant attention and is poorly understood compared to nutrient transport in surface and subsurface water flow pathways. Thus, we determined the deposition of phosphorus (P), nitrogen (N), and sediment in a mixed land use watershed in south-central Pennsylvania (39.5 ha; 50% corn–wheat–soybean rotation, 20% pasture, and 30% woodland), in comparison with stream loads at several locations along its reach between 2004 and 2006. There was a significant difference in deposition rates among land uses (P < 0.05) with more P and N deposited on cropland (1.93 kg P and 10.71 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) than pasture (1.10 kg P and 8.06 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) and woodland (0.36 and 2.33 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). Although not significant, sediment showed the same trends among land uses. A significant relationship was found between P in deposition and P in soil <10-m away from the samplers suggesting much of the deposited sample was derived from local soil. Samplers adjacent to the stream channel showed deposition rates (1.64 kg P and 8.83 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) similar to those on cropland. However, accounting for the surface area of the stream, direct deposition of P, N, and sediment probably accounted for <3% of P and <1% of N and sediment load in stream flow from the watershed (1.41 kg P, 27.09 kg N, and 1343 kg sediment ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ at the outlet). This suggests that strategies to mitigate nutrient and sediment loss in this mixed-land use watershed should focus on runoff pathways.     

碳底物含量对厌氧条件下水稻土N2、N2O、NO、CO2和CH4排放的影响

理解底物碳氮对厌氧条件下水稻土排放氮素气体——氮气(N2)、氧化亚氮(N2O)和一氧化氮(NO)以及二氧化碳(CO2)和甲烷(CH4)的影响,有助于制定合理的温室气体减排措施,定量了解反硝化产物组成对碳底物水平的依赖性,也有助于氮转化过程模型研发中制定正确的关键过程参数选取方法或参数化方案.本研究采用粉砂壤质水稻土为研究对象,设置对照(CK)和加碳(C+)两个处理,前者的初始硝态氮和可溶性有机碳(DOC)含量分别为~50 mg·kg-1和~28 mg·kg-1,后者的分别为~50 mg·kg-1和~300 mg·kg-1.采用氦环境培养-气体及碳氮底物直接同步测定系统,研究了完全厌氧条件下碳底物水平对上述气体排放的影响.结果表明,CK处理无CH4排放,而C+处理可观测到CH4排放;C+处理的综合增温潜势显著高于CK处理(P<0.01);NO、N2O和N2排放量占这3种氮素气体排放总量的比重,在CK处理分别约为9%、35%和56%,在C+处理分别约为31%、50%和19%,处理间差异显著(P<0.01).由此表明,碳底物水平可显著改变所排放氮素气体的组成;对于旱地阶段硝态氮比较丰富的水稻土,避免在淹水前或淹水期间施用有机肥,有利于削减温室气体排放.     

生物炭添加和灌溉对温室番茄地土壤反硝化损失的影响

生物炭添加和灌溉是番茄地常用的田间管理措施,然而其对反硝化的影响还不清楚.本研究种植试验设置3个灌溉量水平分别为估算作物生育期需水量ET0的50%(W50%)、75%(W75%)、100%(W100%)和3个生物炭添加水平分别为B0(折合纯碳,0)、B25(折合纯碳,25 t·hm-2)、B50(折合纯碳,50 t·hm-2),在2014年和2015年番茄收获后,每个试验小区采集具有代表性的土样进行室内培养试验,采用乙炔抑制法来研究土壤的反硝化损失和不加乙炔研究N_2O的排放量.结果表明生物炭和灌溉量显著改变了土壤的理化性质.与B0相比,添加生物炭能够提高土壤全碳、全氮含量和pH值,降低铵态氮、硝态氮含量,而灌水量降低了土壤中全氮和全碳的含量.因此,与B0/W50%相比,B25/W75%和B50/W100%处理显著减少了反硝化损失量(P0.05).生物炭和灌溉量的交互作用对土壤无机氮含量和反硝化损失的影响均达到显著水平(P0.05),且对硝态氮的影响表现为灌溉量生物炭添加量两者交互作用,对铵态氮的影响表现为生物炭添加量灌溉量两者交互作用,对反硝化损失的影响表现为灌溉量生物炭添加量两者交互作用.反硝化损失量与土壤中无机氮含量、(CO_2-C)矿化量与N_2O排放量均呈正相关关系.不同生物炭添加量和灌溉量处理后明显影响了N_2O/DN(P0.05),培养结束时,各处理下的N_2O累积排放量/DN累积排放量差异较大,介于0.31%~1.88%.     

基于同位素技术的短程硝化过程N2O产生途径

在常温条件下,采用批次试验结合同位素分析技术,研究不同溶解氧(DO)浓度下短程硝化过程N_2O的释放量及产生途径.结果表明,不同溶解氧条件下,N_2O的释放量与NO_2~--N浓度显著相关,当NO_2~--N浓度大于3 mg·L~(-1),短程硝化过程开始出现N_2O的释放,且随着NO_2~--N浓度的增加而增加.当溶解氧浓度分别为0. 5、1. 5和2. 5 mg·L~(-1)时,N_2O的释放量占进水总氮的比例分别为4. 35%、3. 27%和2. 63%,随着溶解氧的升高,N_2O的释放量占进水总氮的比例降低.短程硝化过程控制溶解氧在2. 5 mg·L~(-1),既可以提高比氨氧化速率,又可以减少N_2O的产生.同位素测定结果表明,当溶解氧为0. 5 mg·L~(-1)时,只有AOB反硝化过程生成N_2O.但当溶解氧升至1. 5 mg·L~(-1)时,有4. 52%的N_2O通过NH_2OH氧化过程生成,AOB反硝化过程生成的N_2O占95. 48%.继续升高溶解氧到2. 5 mg·L~(-1)时,NH_2OH氧化过程生成的N_2O比例增加至9. 11%,AOB反硝化过程生成的N_2O占90. 89%,溶解氧浓度的改变会影响短程硝化过程N_2O的产生途径,避免过高的NO_2~--N积累,可以减少N_2O的产生.