以系统观点讨论中国沙漠化的成因机制及对策

沙漠化已经成为一个威胁人类生存的世界性环境问题。要防治沙漠化，必须先要找出沙漠化的成因。导致土地沙漠化的原因是由于地区生态系统脆弱，外部环境的作用强度很大，超过系统的承受范围而导致系统崩溃。由于全球变化导致气候格局发生变化，中纬度地区趋于干暖化，另上我国境内地形因素的影响，加剧了季风强度，降水分布很不均匀并分布集中，主要集中在7、8两个月份，土地风化淋蚀作用强烈，使得我国西部和北部地区的土地沙漠化现象严重，而人类过度活动和落后的管理体制也在一定程度上加剧了土地的沙漠化。不同地区具有不同的沙漠化特征，从我国实际出发，主要采取适应，预防和治理的策略来防止沙漠化的继续扩展。     

黑龙江省土地沙漠化控制作用重要性评价

根据黑龙江省沙漠化现状和评价方法与指标对黑龙江省的生态系统进行沙漠化控制作用重要性评价,评价结果将黑龙江省沙漠化控制重要地区分为4级,即极重要、中等重要、比较重要和一般重要四个级别,确定了它们的分布区域.这一成果为黑龙江省生态功能区划和区域可持续发展奠定了基础,提供了科学依据.     

土地沙漠化的原因与控制

由于对土地的管理不当和环境受到压力,使全球许多干旱地区的土地正在退化。尽管国际上在努力防止沙漠化,但问题正在继续恶化,全世界三分之一的陆地与8.5亿最穷的人口正面临着沙漠化威胁。最重要的是全世界每年有35亿公顷土地都受到了沙漠化的不良影响,其中,每年有600万公顷土地完全变成沙漠,有2100万公顷变成半沙漠状态不适宜种植粮食作物。农村中受沙漠化严重危害的村民由1977年的5700万人增加到1984年的1.35亿人。全世界每年由于沙漠化造成的经济损失达260亿美元,而控制沙漠化每年却只需45亿美元。土地沙漠化的原因是由于人类不适当的活动引起的。当然,人类也有能力来控制沙漠的扩大和治理已经变成沙漠的土地,如改善农业技术、植树造林、种植牧草、改善土地管理、改良灌溉方法与排水方法等。现就沙漠化的原因、危害与防止沙漠化的对策略述如下。     

全球沙漠化的最新动向

前言现表明,在全球的干旱地域及其周围,沙漠化正在广泛地进行着。1977年在内罗毕召开了选择以根绝沙漠化为目标的,防止沙漠化行动计划为内容的联合国沙漠化会议。这次会议以后,沙漠化现象作为全球规模的环境问题,联合国机构故然不用说,甚至引起世界各国政府和非政府机构,特别是民间援助团体的广泛注目。本文在关于沙漠化的原因,过程及其影响的论述中,概括地阐述了一些全球最近沙漠化的动向和防止对策问题。     

世界沙漠化状况

沙漠化是干旱、半干旱及干燥的微湿土地(干旱土地)受到人类的有害影响所引起的土地退化。这是宇宙里所有干旱土地的普遍但又是分散的土地退化过程,这与人造卫星观察到的沙漠边缘(“沙漠扩大或缩小”)植被生产率循环波动的现象不同,这与气候变化有关。目前全球沙漠化直接危害着36亿公顷干旱土地或全球干旱     

沙漠治理新途径新方法

中国是受土地沙漠化严重危害的国家之一,目前中国土地沙漠化仍然呈增加趋势。本文在对当前中国沙漠治理中存在的问题进行论述的基础上,提出沙漠治理的新途径、新方法,并加以阐述。     

世界草原沙漠化与土地退化状况

据联合国环境署1992年报道,全世界的45.56亿公顷草场中,有33.33亿公顷,即73％出现了沙漠化与土地退化状况。从程度上看,最严重和严重沙漠化以及退化的达20.56亿公顷,占草场总面积的45.12％。其中,北美洲草场沙漠化与土地退化最严重,达85％,非洲达74％,澳大利亚达55％,欧洲72％,亚洲76％,南美76％。从沙漠     

中国代表团团长王越毅同志在联合国沙漠化会议上的发言

主席先生: 中华人民共和国代表团很高兴来到这里出席联合国沙漠化会议,就大家关心的沙漠化问题交换意见。我们愿意同各国代表一起,共同努力,使会议能够为解决我们大家所关心的阻止沙漠化蔓延并进而改造和利用沙漠问题,作出积极的贡献。近年来,世界上沙漠化的面积不断扩展,约有三分之一的土地,数十个国家和六亿多人口,特别是许多发展中国家,受到沙漠和沙漠     

环境与沙漠化

环境污染的种类很多。在干旱和半干旱区过渡放牧、樵采毁坏了地表植被,所造成的水土流失和沙漠化就是破坏生态环境的一种极其重要的形式。所以改造沙漠防止沙漠化的漫延是保护环境的重要内容。     

流体包裹体同位素年代学与放射成因同位素研究评述

在矿床地球化学研究中,与一般全岩或单矿物同位素和放射成因同位素研究相比,流体包裹体中流体的同位素年代学和放射成因同位素研究对弄清成矿年代和矿源具有诸多优越性。一则流体包裹体大都无渗漏现象,即自形成起就保持封闭地球化学体系;二则可通过阶段加热爆裂法区分后期地质作用与早期地质作用结晶时的流体;从理论上说,凡含有包裹体的矿物,均可作为本方法研究的对象。笔者强调了进一步发展流体包裹体中同位素示踪和同位素计时研究的关键是选择有代表性的包裹体。     

Toxic effects of acetochlor, methamidophos and their combination on nifH gene in soil

Toxic effects of two agrochemicals on nifH gene in agricultural black soil were investigated using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis （DGGE） and sequencing approaches in a microcosm experiment. Changes of soil nifH gene diversity and composition were examined following the application of acetochlor, methamidophos and their combination. Acetochlor reduced the nifH gene diversity （both in gene richness and diversity index values） and caused changes in the nifH gene composition. The effects of acetochlor on nifH gene were strengthened as the concentration of acetochlor increased. Cluster analysis of DGGE banding patterns showed that nifH gene composition which had been affected by low concentration of acetochlor （50 mg/kg） recovered firstly. Methamidophos reduced nifH gene richness that except at 4 weeks. The medium concentration of methamidophos （150 mg/kg） caused the most apparent changes in nifH gene diversity at the first week while the high concentration of methamidophos （250 mg/kg） produced prominent effects on nifH gene diversity in the following weeks. Cluster analysis showed that minimal changes of nifH gene composition were found at 1 week and maximal changes at 4 weeks. Toxic effects of acetochlor and methamidophos combination on nifH gene were also apparent. Different nifH genes （bands） responded differently to the impact of agrochemicals： four individual bands were eliminated by the application of the agrochemicals, five bands became predominant by the stimulation of the agrochemicals, and four bands showed strong resistance to the influence of the agrochemicals. Fifteen prominent bands were partially sequenced, yielding 15 different nifH sequences, which were used for phylogenetic reconstructions. All sequences were affiliated with the alpha- and beta-proteobacteria, showing higher similarity to eight different diazotrophic genera.     

Arsenic uptake by arbuscular mycorrhizal maize （Zea mays L.） grown in an arsenic-contaminated soil with added phosphorus

The effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus (Glomus mosseae) and phosphorus (P) addition (100 mg/kg soil) on arsenic (As) uptake by maize plants (Zea mays L.) from an As-contaminated soil were examined in a glasshouse experiment.Non-mycorrhizal and zero-P addition controls were included.Plant biomass and concentrations and uptake of As,P,and other nutrients,AM colonization,root lengths,and hyphal length densities were determined.The results indicated that addition of P significantly inhibited root colonization and development of extraradical mycelium.Root length and dry weight both increased markedly with mycorrhizal colonization under the zero-P treatments,but shoot and root biomass of AM plants was depressed by P application.AM fungal inoculation decreased shoot As concentrations when no P was added,and shoot and root As concentrations of AM plants increased 2.6 and 1.4 times with P addition,respectively.Shoot and root uptake of P,Mn,Cu,and Zn increased,but shoot Fe uptake decreased by 44.6%,with inoculation, when P was added.P addition reduced shoot P,Fe,Mn,Cu,and Zn uptake of AM plants,but increased root Fe and Mn uptake of the nonmycorrhizal ones.AM colonization therefore appeared to enhance plant tolerance to As in low P soil,and have some potential for the phytostabilization of As-contaminated soil,however,P application may introduce additional environmental risk by increasing soil As mobility.     

Impact of atrazine and nitrogen fertilizers on the sorption of chlorotoluron in soil and model sorbents

Sorption of chlorotoluron in ammonium sulfate, urea and atrazine multi-solutes system was investigated by batch experiments. The results showed application of nitrogen fertilizers to the soil could affect the behavior of chlorotoluron. At the same concentration of N, sorption of chlorotoluron decreased as the concentration of atrazine increased on the day 0 and 6 in soil, respectively. The sorption of chlorotoluron increased from 0 to 6 d when soils were preincubated with deionized water, ammonium sulfate and urea solution for 6 d. That indicated incubation time was one of the most important factors for the sorption of chlorotoluron in nitrogen fertilizers treatments. The individual sorption isotherms of chlorotoluron in rubbery polymer and silica were strictly linear in single solute system, but there were competition sorption between pesticides or between pesticides and nitrogen fertilizers. That indicated the sorption taken place by concurrent solid-phase dissolution mechanism and sorption on the interface of water-organic matter or water-mineral matter.     

Degradation of metabolites accumulated of benzo[a]pyrene by coupling Penicillium Chrysogenum with KMnO4

Several main metabolites of benzo[a]pyrene （BaP） formed by Penicillium chrysogenum, Benzo[a]pyrene-1,6-quinone （BP 1,6- quinone）, trans-7,8-dihydroxy-7,8-dihydrobenzo[a]pyrene （BP 7,8-diol）, 3-hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene （3-OHBP）, were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography （HPLC）. The three metabolites were liable to be accumulated and were hardly further metabolized because of their toxicity to microorganisms. However, their further degradation was essential for the complete degradation of BaP. To enhance their degradation, two methods, degradation by coupling Penicillium chrysogenum with KMnO4 and degradation only by Penicillium chrysogenum, were compared; Meanwhile, the parameters of degradation in the superior method were optimized. The results showed that （1） the method of coupling Penicillium chrysogenum with KMnO4 was better and was the first method to be used in the degradation of BaP and its metabolites; （2） the metabolite, BP 1,6-quinone was the most liable to be accumulated in pure cultures; （3） the effect of degradation was the best when the concentration of KMnO4 in the cultures was 0.01% （w/v）, concentration of the three compounds was 5 mg/L and pH was 6.2. Based on the experimental results, a novel concept with regard to the bioremediation of BaP-contaminated environment was discussed, considering the influence on environmental toxicity of the accumulated metabolites.     

Potential of plant polyphenol oxidases in the decolorization and removal of textile and non-textile dyes

In this study an effort has been made to use plant polyphenol oxidases; potato （Solanum tuberosum） and brinjal （Solanum melongena）, for the treatment of various important dyes used in textile and other industries. The ammonium sulphate fractionated enzyme preparations were used to treat a number of dyes under various experimental conditions. Majority of the treated dyes were maximally decolorized at pH 3.0. Some of the dyes were quickly decolorized whereas others were marginally decolorized. The initial first hour was sufficient for the maximum decolorization of dyes. The rate of decolorization was quite slow on long treatment of dyes. Enhancement in the dye decolorization was noticed on increasing the concentration of enzymes. The complex mixtures of dyes were treated with both preparations of polyphenol oxidases in the buffers of varying pH values. Potato polyphenol oxidase was significantly more effective in decolorizing the dyes to higher extent as compared to the enzyme obtained from brinjal polyphenol oxidase. Decolorization of dyes and their mixtures, followed by the formation of an insoluble precipitate, which could be easily removed simply by centrifugation.     

Effects of two sludge application on fractionation and phytotoxicity of zinc and copper in the soil

The potential harm of heavy metals is a primary concern in application of sludge to the agricultural land. A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of two sludges on fractionation of Zn and Cu in soil and their phytotoxicity to pakchoi. The loamy soil was mixed with 0%, 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% (by weight) of digested sewage sludge (SS) and composted sludge (SC). The additions of both sludges caused a significant raise in all fractions, resulting in that exchangeable (EXCH) and organic bound (OM) became predominance of Zn and organic bound Cu occupied the largest portion. There was more available amount of Zn and Cu in SS treatments than SC treatments. During the pot experiment, the concentration of Zn in EXCH, carbonate (CAR) and OM and Cu in EXCH and OM fractions decreased in all treatments, so their bioavailability reduced. Germination rate and plant biomass decreased when the addition rate was high and the best yield appeared in 20% mixtures at the harvest of pakchoi. The two sludges increased tissue contents of Zn and Cu especially in the SS treatments. Zn in pakchoi was not only in relationship to ΔEXCH and ΔCAR forms but also in ΔOM forms in the sludge-soil mixtures. Tissue content of Cu in pakchoi grown on SC-soils could not be predicted by ΔEXCH. These correlation rates between Zn and Cu accumulation in pakchoi and variation of different fractions increased with time, which might indicate that sludges represented stronger impacts on the plant in long-term land application.     

Intraspecific differences in effects of co-contamination of cadmium and

A hydroponic experiment was carried out to study intraspecific differences in the effects of different concentrations of cadmium (Cd)(0-10 mg/L) and arsenate (As(V)) (0-8 mg/L) on the growth parameters and accumulation of Cd and As in six wheat varieties Jing-9428, Duokang-1, Jingdong-11, Jing-411, Jingdong-8 and Zhongmai-8. The endpoints of wheat seedlings, including seed germination,biomass, root length and shoot height, decreased with increasing the Cd and As concentrations. Significant differences in seed germination, biomass, root length, shoot height and the accumulation of Cd and As were observed between the treatments and among the varieties (p ＜ 0.05). The lethal dosage 50% were about 20, 80, 60, 60, 80 and 20 mg As/L for Jing-9428, Duokang-1, Jingdong-11,Jing-411, Jingdong-8 and Zhongmai-8, respectively, and the corresponding values for Cd were about 30, 80, 20, 40, 60 and 10 mg Cd/L, respectively. Among the six varieties, Duokang-1 was found to be the most resistant to Cd and As toxicity, and Zhongmai-8 was the most sensitive to Cd and As co-contamination. The resistance of the six varieties was found dependant on the seedling uptake of Cd and As. Duokang-1 was the most suitable for cultivation in Cd and As co-contaminated soils.     

Removal of heavy metals from sewage sludge by low costing chemical method and recycling in agriculture

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Isolation and preliminary characterization of a 3-chlorobenzoate degrading bacteria

A study was conducted to compare the diversity of 2-, 3-, and 4-chlorobenzoate degraders in two pristine soils and one contaminated sewage sludge. These samples contained strikingly different populations of mono-chlorobenzoate degraders. Although fewer cultures were isolated in the uncontaminated soils than contaminated one, the ability of microbial populations to mineralize chlorobenzoate was widespread. The 3- and 4-chlorobenzoate degraders were more diverse than the 2-chlorobenzoate degraders. One of the strains isolated from the sewage sludge was obtained. Based on its phenotype, chemotaxonomic properties and 16S rRNA gene, the organism S-7 was classified as Rhodococcus erythropolis. The strain can grow at temperature from 4 to 37℃. It can utilize several （halo）aromatic compounds. Moreover, strain S-7 can grow and use 3-chlorobenzoate as sole carbon source in a temperatures range of 10-30℃ with stoichiometric release of chloride ions. The psychrotolerant ability was significant for bioremediation in low temperature regions. Catechol and chlorocatechol 1,2-dioxygenase activities were present in cell free extracts of the strain, but no （chloro）catechol 2,3- dioxygenase activities was detected. Spectral conversion assays with extracts from R. erythropolis S-7 showed accumulation of a compound with a similar UV spectrum as chloro-cis,cis-muconate from 3-chlorobenzoate. On the basis of these results, we proposed that S-7 degraded 3-chlorobenzoate through the modified ortho-cleave pathway.     

Single and joint effects of pesticides and mercury on soil urease

The influence of two pesticides including chlorimuron-ethyl and furadan and mercury （Hg） on urease activity in 4 soils （meadow burozem and phaeozem） was investigated. The soils were exposed to various concentrations of the two pesticides and Hg individually and simultaneously. Results showed that there was a close relationship between urease activity and organic matter content in soil. Chlorimuron-ethyl and furadan could both activate urease in the 4 soils. The maximum increment of urease activity by chlorimuronethyl was up to 14%-18%. There was almost an equal increase （up to 13%-21%） in the urease activity by furadan. On the contrary, Hg markedly inhibited soil urease activity. A logarithmic equation was used to describe the relationship （P〈0.05） between the concentration of Hg and the activity of soil urease in the 4 tested soils. Semi-effect dose （ED50） values by the stress of Hg based on the inhibition of soil urease in the 4 soils were 88, 5.5, 24 and 20 mg/kg, respectively, according to the calculation of the corresponding equations. The interactive effect of chlorimuron-ethyl or furadan with metal Hg on soil urease was mainly synergic at the highest tested concentrations.