Identifying Conservation and Restoration Priorities for Saproxylic and Old-Growth Forest Species: A Case Study in Switzerland

Saproxylic (dead-wood-associated) and old-growth species are among the most threatened species in European forest ecosystems, as they are susceptible to intensive forest management. Identifying areas with particular relevant features of biodiversity is of prime concern when developing species conservation and habitat restoration strategies and in optimizing resource investments. We present an approach to identify regional conservation and restoration priorities even if knowledge on species distribution is weak, such as for saproxylic and old-growth species in Switzerland. Habitat suitability maps were modeled for an expert-based selection of 55 focal species, using an ecological niche factor analyses (ENFA). All the maps were then overlaid, in order to identify potential species’ hotspots for different species groups of the 55 focal species (e.g., birds, fungi, red-listed species). We found that hotspots for various species groups did not correspond. Our results indicate that an approach based on “richness hotspots” may fail to conserve specific species groups. We hence recommend defining a biodiversity conservation strategy prior to implementing conservation/restoration efforts in specific regions. The conservation priority setting of the five biogeographical regions in Switzerland, however, did not differ when different hotspot definitions were applied. This observation emphasizes that the chosen method is robust. Since the ENFA needs only presence data, this species prediction method seems to be useful for any situation where the species distribution is poorly known and/or absence data are lacking. In order to identify priorities for either conservation or restoration efforts, we recommend a method based on presence data only, because absence data may reflect factors unrelated to species presence.     

Conservation in Brazil's Chocolate Forest: The Unlikely Persistence of the Traditional Cocoa Agroecosystem

/ In southern Bahia, Brazil, the traditional cocoa agroecosystem with a dense shade canopy of native trees is now recognized as a secondary conservation route for highly endangered Atlantic Rainforest species. This "chocolate forest" of the densely shaded farms persists despite a massive 20-year Brazilian government modernization program in which shade was seen as a chief impediment to raising cocoa production. The objective of this study was to determine how this traditional agroecosystem endured. Although dense shade limits cocoa yield, it provides several agroecological benefits: control of insect pests and weeds, microclimate stability, and soil fertility maintenance. A keycomponent of modernization efforts was a shade-tree removal program designed to maximize cocoa production by using low shade and fertilizer while substituting agrochemicals for many beneficial roles of the overhead trees. This research found that many farmers rejected, or only partially accepted, the shade reduction process although it promised much higher cocoa yield and profit. Farmers employing a wide range of shading were interviewed, and it was found that decisions to remove or maintain the shade trees were linked to both agroecological and risk-minimization factors. Farmers' perceptions of the agroecological functions of the shade trees and individual willingness to entertain the economic risk associated with substituting agrochemicals for these were important. A less-profitable, but lower-risk approach of occasional fertilizer and agrochemical use with the traditional shade intact was a rational and widespread choice. Policies designed to maintain the traditional agroecosystem through the current economic crisis should heed the multiple functions of the overhead trees. KEY WORDS: Conservation; Brazil; Atlantic Rainforest; Cocoa; Agroecology; Risk; Agroforestry     

Prevalence of Conservation Design in an Agriculture-Dominated Landscape: The Case of Northern Indiana

We examined the prevalence of residential development that occurs with consideration of the natural features of the site, known as conservation design, within county-level planning jurisdictions across Northern Indiana. Using data from telephone interviews with representatives of planning departments, jurisdictions were ranked based on reported use of conservation design. Three categories of use emerged from the data: no use, use of individual practices associated with conservation design, and integration of multiple conservation design practices. Qualitative data analysis revealed that conservation design practices were not being used widely and, when used, were often used to fulfill stormwater requirements. Statistical analysis, using data from interviews, spatial data sets, and the U.S. Census Bureau, identified several significant positive predictors of the levels of conservation design use including conversion of forest or agricultural land cover to urban uses and education levels in the jurisdiction. Many of the interviewees noted that agricultural land is perceived to meet open space needs within their counties. Given that agricultural land does not fully meet all ecosystem needs, education about the benefits of other types of open space is suggested.

Co-management of Natural Resources: A Proposed Framework

Co-management acknowledges pragmatic developments and progression of institutional choice theories in natural resource management. This innovative concept embraces a pluralistic management approach based on the principle of subsidiarity and creates opportunities for the reconciliation of competitive property claims. This article reviews definitions of co-management, distinguishes it from other property rights regimes, and develops an organizational structure of the major elements involved. Synthesis of both experiences and literature leads to the development of a conceptual framework. Co-management is structured in terms of context, components, and linking mechanisms. In concert, these elements offer insight into the practice of co-management, address the shortcomings of institutional theories, and respond to critical issues raised in related literature. The framework contributes to natural resource management by acting as a means of identification and evaluation for such arrangements, as well as a systematic guide for future inquiries.     

Forest resources and household welfare: Empirical evidence from North Central Vietnam

Using secondary data from a socio-economic quantitative household survey of the North Central region of Vietnam, the main aim of our study is to analyze the causal effect of forest resources on household income and poverty. Based on the observed characteristics of a forest-based livelihood and forest-related activities, we use a propensity score matching (PSM) method to control for potential bias arising from self-selection. The PSM results indicate that households with a forest-based livelihood had a higher level of income and lower poverty rates than did those without. Interestingly, our findings confirm that a forest-based livelihood offers much higher income than any other type of livelihood adopted by local households. Also, the poverty rate among households with a forest-based livelihood is lower than those earning non-labor income or engaged in wage/crop and crop livelihoods. Among households and provinces, we find varying opportunities deriving from forest resources, suggesting that there are potential barriers hindering local households from pursuing a forest livelihood or participating in some forest activities. Therefore, government policy and regulations on forest management should focus on improving the access of households to forest resources, while enhancing the sustainability of these resources.     

Land Degradation on Barren Hills: A Case Study in Northeast Vietnam

The term "barren hills" has been a keyword for land degradation in the uplands of Vietnam for over a decade. Nevertheless, the "barren" land is still not adequately ecologically characterized. In this work, we analyze land use-induced changes in vegetation and soil properties along a sequence of barren hills types formed on one physiotope. The study is undertaken in the Bac Kan province, one of the poorest upland regions where livestock plays an important role. A transition from an old-growth laurel forest to a sparse manmade grassland is characterized by a total of 177 species, rapid species turnover, and discrete dominants, and an overwhelming effect of disturbance history on both soil and vegetation patterning. Land degradation is most apparent in land use-induced maintenance of arrested successions, and the regeneration course is shifted towards drier formations. We hypothesize a conceptual model as an aid to understanding the process of early fallow differentiation in response to the patterned, fine-scale disturbances. The larger-scale implications of the observed trends in regeneration potentials deviation, and, in particular, the effect of water buffaloes in halting fallow successions, are discussed.     

PROFILE: Tourism Contribution to Agro-Ecosystems Conservation: The Case of Lesbos Island, Greece

The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of tourism activities on olive tree cultivation and the human population of the island of Lesbos. The presence or absence of tourism is related with the maintenance or abandonment of olive tree cultivation and population changes for each community. A spatial segregation of the island is evident, related to tourist development, olive tree cultivation, and population change. The results of the study demonstrate that in communities where tourism plays an important role olive tree cultivation is preserved and the population is stable. The preservation of the agro-ecosystem is assured while the olive groves remain productive. Simultaneously, the landscape, which provides specific attractions for tourism, is not altered.     

中国森林公园资源保护和旅游开发

到1992年底,我国已建立森林公园255处,其中国家森林公园155处。森林公园资源十分丰富,具有众多的动植物资源、山水资源和人文资源。森林旅游具有其它类型旅游不可比拟的独特作用,已成为现代旅游的新潮流。森林公园的建立,客观上保护了自然和自然资源,但急功近利的经营思想和掠夺式开发导致了自然资源的破坏。本文最后对森林公园资源保护和旅游开发如何协调统一提出了几点建议。     

Resource Use Among Rural Agricultural Households Near Protected Areas in Vietnam: The Social Costs of Conservation and Implications for Enforcement

This article examines the use of forests in a protected area by nearby agriculturalists in central Vietnam. Research indicates that the majority of rural farmers interviewed who lived near a state designated protected area were receiving both subsistence and cash incomes from forest-based activities, primarily from the collection of forest products. However, much of the collection of forest produce was officially illegal, as it occurred in state protected forests, and interdiction efforts were on the increase. Yet, little attention has been paid in Vietnam to the need for income substitution for households who lose access to forest produce as a result of conservation enforcement, particularly in the case of farmers who live near, but not in, protected areas; their resources use has been ‘invisible’ due to a lack of attention and research on the topic. This misunderstanding of the importance of forests to rural farmers has the potential to result in households facing adverse welfare and livelihood outcomes as protected areas boundaries are tightened, and local communities face increased opportunity costs due to stricter conservation enforcement. The article concludes that substitution for loss of income due to conservation activities would best be achieved through carefully targeted interventions to specific high-impact and high-dependency households. Additionally, investments in new sources of wage labor and other low capital-input activities, rather than in agriculture, would likely be of most benefit.     

The Impacts of Water Conservation Strategies on Water Use: Four Case Studies1

Tsai, Yushiou, Sara Cohen, and Richard M. Vogel, 2011. The Impacts of Water Conservation Strategies on Water Use: Four Case Studies. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 47(4):687‐701. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2011.00534.x Abstract: We assessed impacts on water use achieved by implementation of controlled experiments relating to four water conservation strategies in four towns within the Ipswich watershed in Massachusetts. The strategies included (1) installation of weather‐sensitive irrigation controller switches (WSICS) in residences and municipal athletic fields; (2) installation of rainwater harvesting systems in residences; (3) two outreach programs: (a) free home indoor water use audits and water fixture retrofit kits and (b) rebates for low‐water‐demand toilets and washing machines; and (4) soil amendments to improve soil moisture retention at a municipal athletic field. The goals of this study are to summarize the effectiveness of the four water conservation strategies and to introduce nonparametric statistical methods for evaluating the effectiveness of these conservation strategies in reducing water use. It was found that (1) the municipal WSICS significantly reduced water use; (2) residences with high irrigation demand were more likely than low water users to experience a substantial demand decrease when equipped with the WSICS; (3) rainwater harvesting provided substantial rainwater use, but these volumes were small relative to total domestic water use and relative to the natural fluctuations in domestic water use; (4) both the audits/retrofit and rebate programs resulted in significant water savings; and (5) a modeling approach showed potential water savings from soil amendments in ball fields.     

The Effectiveness of Plant Conservation: A Case Study of Opole Province,Southwest Poland

This work presents a method of assessing plant conservation effectiveness in a given region, which takes into account the legal, species-centered protection, ecosystem conservation, ex situ conservation, restorations and translocations, reintroductions, and monitoring. In order to illustrate the conservation effectiveness, both legally protected species of plants and threatened species were examined. The conservation effectiveness of legally protected species was estimated to have a low value of 23.328 points (pts) according to the methods of calculation. Habitat conservation is insufficient for these species. Almost 40% of all localities are deprived of any ecosystem protection. The conservation effectiveness of the threatened group of species scored a very low value of 13.46 pts. The major reason for this result is a very low level of species protection. Less than 30% of the threatened taxa are under legal preservation and some species from the Orobanche and Cuscuta genera are treated as harmful organisms, which it is obligatory to control within the province territory. Almost 30% of all localities of threatened species are deprived of any ecosystem protection and only 10% lie inside nature reserves. It is suggested that the conclusion of this investigation be used in the preparation and realization of the regional floristic diversity preservation strategy.Published online     

Decentralized Natural Resource Management: From State to Co-management in India

In India, as in many parts of the developing world, the dominant view has been that local people are causing natural resource degradation. New thinking in the natural resource management domain is gradually replacing the older views blaming local people for decline of natural resources. The new approach advocates decentralization of natural resource management. This is discussed in this paper in relation to the ongoing decentralization reforms in India. The centralized approach dominated natural resource management in India during the colonial period. The government after independence conveniently adopted the same approach, excluding local people from forests. Recent research and resistance from grassroot movements led to a paradigm shift towards decentralization at the policy level in natural resource management. It is not clear whether the new Joint Forest Management (JFM) policy in India is an attempt to institutionalize state dominance, or if it will lead to real decentralization. The data from several villages adjacent to the Sariska Tiger Reserve (STR), Rajasthan, India show that state dominance is still prevalent, despite constraints. The real challenge lies in providing flexibility within the JFM policy to adapt to local conditions in natural resource management.     

森林自然保护区保护效果评价方法:挑战与进展

建立自然保护区是保护生物多样性的最有效的保护措施之一,但如何评估自然保护区保护效果一直是自然保护研究的难点。本文针对热带森林自然保护区保护效果评价方法进行综述,分析热带森林自然保护区保护效果评价面临的挑战:空间不可比、时间不可比;明确了热带森林自然保护区保护效果评价可比性建立的基本模式:确定森林退化指标,选择协变量,平衡协变量,选择对比方式,判断并去除空间溢出的影响范围;回顾了自然保护区保护效果评估常用统计方法:回归评估法和匹配评估法。为了加强热带森林自然保护区保护效果评估,在今后评估方法选择过程中建议:强化时空对比;强化多学科交叉方法的应用;强调多维度评估指标的选择和应用。     

Risk Tradeoffs in Adaptive Ecosystem Management: The Case of the U.S. Forest Service

Natural resource planning processes on public lands in the United States are driven in large part by the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), which dictates general processes for analyzing and disclosing the likely impacts of proposed actions. The outcomes of these processes are the result of multiple factors, many related to the manifold smaller incremental decisions made by agency personnel directing the processes. Through interviews with decision makers, team leaders, and team members on five NEPA processes within the U.S. Forest Service, this study examines those incremental decisions. Risk, in particular external relationship risk, emerged as a dominant lens through which agency personnel weigh and make process-related decisions. We discuss the tradeoffs associated with agency actors’ emphasis on this form of risk and their potential implications for adaptive ecosystem management and organizational performance.     

An Empirical Evaluation of Private Landowner Participation in Voluntary Forest Conservation Programs

The use of voluntary programs targeting resource conservation on private land has become increasingly prevalent in environmental policy. Voluntary programs potentially offer significant benefits over regulatory and market-based approaches. This article examines the factors affecting landowner participation in voluntary forest conservation programs using a combination of parcel-level GIS and remotely sensed data and semi-structured interviews of landowners in Monroe County, Indiana. A logistic regression model is applied to determine the probability of participation based on landowner education, membership in other non-forest voluntary programs, dominant land use activity, parcel size, distance from urban center, land resource portfolios, and forest cover. Both land use activity and the spatial configuration of a landholder’s resource portfolio are found to be statistically significant with important implications for the design and implementation of voluntary programs.

The declining cocoa economy and the Atlantic Forest of Southern Bahia,Brazil: Conservation attitudes of cocoa planters

Summary The causes of the degradation of Brazilian Atlantic Forest in the south-eastern cocoa region of the State of Bahia are investigated by means of a survey on cocoa planter's forest conservation attitudes. Large land-owners were found to be responsible for most of the forest clearing that occurred in the past: cocoa prices compensated investment in the expansion of the area planted to cocoa on planters' forested land-holdings. Large land-owners were also responsible for most of the recent forest clearing, which occurred simply to sell trees in order to earn income while cocoa prices were depressed. Large land-owners are nonetheless more interested than small land-owners in conserving some of their forest. Policies encouraging private forest conservation, and the development of forest-conserving agricultural alternatives for the landless poor are recommended.Dr Keith Alger teaches at the Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz in Southern Bahia, a community college in Brazil's cocoa producing region. He is Vice-President of Fundação Pau Brasil, a non-profit association of local researchers and environmentalists whose objective is to encourage the conservation of biodiversity in regional, economic and social development. He does volunteer work for Projeto Mico-Leão Baiano (The Bahian Lion Tamarin Project), an environmental education project coordinated by maria Cristina Alves and sponsored by the Wildlife Preservation Trust International. Dr Alger's current research on land-use tendencies in a wildlife park buffer zone is supported by Conservation International and the World Wildlife fund. Marcellus Caldas took his MS in agricultural economics at the Universidade Federal de Viçosa in Minas Gerais, and teaches at the Universidade Federal da Bahia in Cruz das Almas, Bahia, Brazil.