Temporal trends in urban and rural blood lead concentrations

A long term programme to assess the impact of reduced lead emissions in the UK has been established in central London and rural Suffolk. Blood lead concentrations of 5 and 6 year old children and their mothers both show an urban-rural difference of about 1.5 g/dl, which is related to the urban-rural differences in air and dust lead concentrations between areas.This paper is also being published in Proceedings of the Conference on Lead in the Home Environment and is one of several selected from SEGH sponsored conferences for simultaneous publication in this journal.     

Preliminary assessment of surface soil lead concentrations in Melbourne,Australia

Urban soils in many cities have been found to be contaminated with lead from past usage of leaded petrol, deteriorating lead-based exterior paints and industrial sources. Currently, the spatial distribution of soil lead concentrations in the Melbourne metropolitan area is unknown. The objective of this study was to perform a preliminary assessment of the spatial distributions of the surface soil lead (Pb) concentrations in the Melbourne metropolitan area, Australia. Fifty-eight surface soil samples were collected at a depth of 0–2 cm along three linear transects oriented across the Melbourne metropolitan area. Surface soil samples were also collected at a higher density in five Melbourne suburbs. Soil cores (0–50 cm) were collected in four locations, soil transects were collected at intervals with distance away from the roadway (0–50 m) in two inner city parks, and one control soil sample was collected in a rural setting. The median soil Pb concentration of the soil transect samples was 173 mg/kg (range 32–710 mg/kg), and the median soil Pb concentration of the five suburbs was 69 mg/kg (range 9–1750 mg/kg). The suburb of Footscray had the highest soil Pb concentration with a median soil Pb concentration of 192 mg/kg (range 40–1750 mg/kg). Soil Pb concentrations were generally higher nearest the centre of the Melbourne metropolitan area and in the west of Melbourne and lower in the outer suburbs to the east and north of the city centre. Soil Pb concentrations decreased with distance from roadways in the two transects taken from urban parks, and soil lead decreased with depth in the four soil cores. The soil Pb concentrations in the Melbourne metropolitan area appear to be lower than soil lead concentrations observed in inner city areas of Sydney New South Wales (NSW) and Newcastle NSW. The spatial extent of the soil Pb hazard remains undefined in portions of the Melbourne metropolitan area.     

Determinants of blood and saliva lead concentrations in adult gardeners on urban agricultural sites

Environmental Geochemistry and Health - Soil Pb concentrations at urban agriculture sites (UAS) commonly exceed recommended safe levels. There is a lack of evidence regarding uptake of Pb by...     

城乡建设用地景观格局多尺度差异

以郑州市域内1989、2000和2009年的典型城市与农村样地（25 km×25 km）为例,应用空间自相关、半方差、以及九项轨迹方差分析方法,对城市与农村建设用地景观多尺度上的空间格局特征与动态差异进行研究,结果表明,（1）城市建设用地景观聚集强度较高,斑块规模较大,而农村建设用地景观在大部分尺度上呈随机或均匀分布,斑块规模较小。（2）随着尺度的增加,城市及农村建设用地景观分布状态都由聚集向均匀过渡,但前者过渡较为平缓,而后者在小尺度范围（0~2km）变化速度较快,在较大尺度（3~16 km）上其分布状态的波动较小。（3）1989-2009年,城市与农村建设用地景观动态特征有较大差异,并表现出尺度依赖性。城市较小尺度上（0~4 km）建设用地景观的分布状态表现出聚集-分散的趋势,在较大尺度上（8~14 km）表现出分散-聚集的变化趋势。农村小尺度上（0~4 km）建设用地景观的分布状态也表现出聚集-分散的趋势,但大尺度（4~16 km）上状态变化很小且没有规律。     

Distribution patterns of lead in urban soil and dust in Shenyang city, Northeast China

We investigated the spatial distribution of Pb in soil and dust samples collected from 54 sites in Shenyang city, Liaoning province, Northeast China. Soil background Pb concentration was 22 mg kg⁻¹ and control values from non-industrial areas were 33 mg kg⁻¹ for soil and 38 mg kg⁻¹ for dust. Soil Pb concentrations varied widely, ranging from 26 to 2911 mg kg⁻¹, with a mean concentration of 200 mg kg⁻¹, 9 times the background value and 6 times the control value. There was great variation in soil Pb, with a coefficient of variation (CV) of 1.06 and a standard deviation (SD) of 212 mg kg⁻¹. Dust Pb concentrations fluctuated from 20 to 2810 mg kg⁻¹, with a mean value of 220 mg kg⁻¹, almost 6 times the control value. No significant differences in distribution were observed between soil Pb and dust Pb. The highest Pb concentration was observed in Tiexi district in an industrial area. Soil Pb concentration decreased with depth and with distance from the pollution source. Lead concentrations initially changed little but then decreased with distance from the roadside, and were generally higher on the east side of roads than on the west. Lead contents in different categories of urban area differed substantially with dust and soil Pb concentrations decreasing in the sequence: industrial >business >mixed (residential, culture and education)> reference areas.     

Songbird abundance and parasitism differ between urban and rural shrublands.

Many studies have examined differences in avian community composition between urban and rural habitats, but few, if any, have looked at nesting success of urban shrubland birds in a replicated fashion while controlling for habitat. We tested factors affecting nest survival, parasitism by the Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater), and species abundance in shrubland habitat in rural and urban landscapes. We found no support for our hypothesis that nest survival was lower in urban landscapes, but strong support for the hypothesis that survival increased with nest height. We found strong support for our hypothesis that cowbird parasitism was greater in urban than rural landscapes; parasitism in urban sites was at least twice that of rural sites. We found strong support for an urban landscape effect on abundance for several species; Northern Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis) and Brown-headed Cowbirds were more abundant in urban landscapes, whereas Field Sparrow (Spizella pusilla) and Blue-winged Warbler (Vermivora pinus) were more abundant in rural sites. There was support for lower abundances of Blue-gray Gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea) and Indigo Bunting (Passerina cyanea) with increased housing density. For six other species, edge and trail density or vegetation parameters best explained abundance. Lower abundances and greater parasitism in habitat patches in urban landscapes are evidence that, for some species, these urban landscapes do not fulfill the same role as comparable habitats in rural landscapes. Regional bird conservation planning and local habitat management in urban landscapes may need to consider these effects in efforts to sustain bird populations at regional and local scales.     

Spatial distribution of lead concentrations in urban surface soils of New Orleans, Louisiana USA

Immediately following hurricane Katrina concern was raised over the environmental impact of floodwaters on the city of New Orleans, especially in regard to human health. Several studies were conducted to determine the actual contaminant distribution throughout the city and surrounding wetlands by analyzing soil, sediment, and water for a variety of contaminants including organics, inorganics, and biologics. Preliminary investigations by The Institute of Environmental and Human Health at Texas Tech University concluded that soils and sediments contained pesticides, semi-volatiles, and metals, specifically arsenic, iron, and lead, at concentrations that could pose a significant risk to human health. Additional studies on New Orleans floodwaters revealed similar constituents as well as compounds commonly found in gasoline. More recently, it has been revealed that lead (Pb), arsenic, and vanadium are found intermittently throughout the city at concentrations greater than the human health soil screening levels (HHSSLs) of 400, 22 (non-cancer endpoint) and 390 μg/g, respectively. Of these, Pb appears to present the greatest exposure hazard to humans as a result of its extensive distribution in city soils. In this study, we spatially evaluated Pb concentrations across greater New Orleans surface soils. We established 128 sampling sites throughout New Orleans at approximately half-mile intervals. A soil sample was collected at each site and analyzed for Pb by ICP-AES. Soils from 19 (15%) of the sites had Pb concentrations exceeding the HHSSL threshold of 400 μg/g. It was determined that the highest concentrations of Pb were found in the south and west portions of the city. Pb concentrations found throughout New Orleans in this study were then incorporated into a geographic information system to create a spatial distribution model that can be further used to predict Pb exposure to humans in the city.     

Contamination indices and heavy metal concentrations in urban soil of Ibadan metropolis, southwestern Nigeria

An assessment was conducted on soils of Ibadan metropolis using geochemical approach in order to establish the concentration of heavy metals and develop geoaccumulation index maps. Petrographic studies and X-ray diffractograms showed that soils of Ibadan were derived from the weathering of the bedrocks. The concentrations of Cu, Pb, and Zn were found to be greater in soils more than the background. Positive correlation occurred between Cu, Pb, and Zn indicated a common anthropogenic source in the soil while Mn, Cr, and Ni were found to be naturally enriched. The geoaccumulation index maps revealed significant enrichment factor (Ef > 20) and index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) beyond class four (heavily contaminated) for Cu, Pb, and Zn in densely populated and industrial areas, whereas Cd is enriched in sparsely populated areas, agricultural areas and a few spots in densely populated areas.     

Simulation of soil carbon changes due to land use change in urban areas in China

Land use change can have a strong impact on soil carbon dynamics and carbon stocks in urban areas. Due to rapid urbanization, large areas of land have been paved, and other areas have undergone rapid land use change. Evaluation of the impact of urbanization on carbon dynamics and carbon stock (30 cm) has become an issue of urgent concern. The soil carbon dynamics, due to rapid land use change in Tianjin Binhai New Area of China, have been simulated in this paper using the RothC model. Because this area is saline, a modified version of RothC that includes a salt rate modifier provided more accurate simulations than the original model. The conversion to urban green land was not accurately simulated by either of the models because of the undefined changes in soil and plant conditions. According to the model, changes of arable to grassland resulted in a decline in soil carbon stocks, and changes of grassland to forest and grassland to arable resulted in increased soil carbon stocks in this area. Across the whole area simulated, the total carbon stocks in 2010 had decreased due to land use change by 6.5% from the 1979 value. By 2050, a further decrease of 21.9% is expected according to the 2050 plan for land use and the continuing losses from the soils due to previous land use changes.     

Determining soil quality in urban agricultural regions by soil enzyme-based index

Urban agricultural soils are highly variable, and careful selection of sensitive indicators is needed for the assessment of soil quality. This study is proposed to develop an index based on soil enzyme activities for assessing the quality of urban agricultural soils. Top soils were collected from urban agricultural areas of Korea, and soil chemical properties, texture, microbial fatty acids, and enzyme activities were determined. The soils belonged to five textural classes with the highest frequency of sandy loam. There was no clear correlation between the soil chemical properties and soil microbial properties. Principal component analysis (PCA) and factor analysis were applied to microbial groups for identification of microbial community variation in soils. Two soil groups, namely group 1 (G1) and group 2 (G2), based on microbial community abundance were examined by PCA, and those were more prominent in factor analysis. The G1 soils showed higher microbial community abundance than G2 soils. The canonical discriminant analysis was applied to the enzyme activities of sandy loam soil to develop an index, and the index validation was confirmed using the unused soils and published data. The high-quality soils in published literature assigned the high valued index. Microbial fatty acids and soil enzyme activities can be suitable indicators for soil quality evaluation of urban agricultural soils.

     

Relationship between lead concentrations in seawater and in the mussel Mytilus edulis: a water-quality criterion

Regression analysis on data collected from Port Phillip Bay and Western Port, Australia in 1979 shows that there is a significant equilibrium relationship between total recoverable lead in seawater and its concentrations in the mussel Mytilus edulis (P<0.001). The concentration of lead in seawater should not exceed 1.27 g l^-1 if the mussel is not to reach a lead concentration of 2.5 mg kg^-1 wet weight, a value frequently used as a food standard for human consumption. When a lead value of 2.5 mg kg^-1 wet weight is reached, the concentration factor by mussels for lead from seawater is 1969. The critical value of 1.27 g l^-1 could be used as a marine water-quality criterion for lead in waters where mussels are harvested.     

Evidence for a correlation between total lead concentrations in soils and the presence of geological faults

The emission of radon gas in regions of geological faults, during the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium, results in the formation of lead isotopes ²¹⁰Pb, ²⁰⁸Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb and ²⁰⁶Pb. As a consequence, the lead contamination in the soil poses a hazard to humans through ingestion of food, contaminated water, and even by direct contact with the soil contaminant. So far the relationship between the occurrence of geological faults and soil Pb contamination has not been established. Here, we studied lead in soils of regions with geological faults and their possible relationship with radon emissions. Soils were sampled from Presidente Prudente located in the far west of São Paulo State, Brazil. The region has strong evidence of the existence and direction of geological faults at depths of approximately 200 m. Soil sampling was done according to the USEPA 3050 method. Total lead was quantified by anodic stripping voltammetry. Results show that the total Pb concentration increases systematically with soil depth. This finding is explained by the fact that the lead originates from radon emissions. Pearson correlation analysis further proves a relationship of the nuclear track density obtained with CR-39 detectors, and mean Pb levels within each soil profile. Overall, our findings should improve risk evaluation of Pb contamination derived from radon emission and geological faults.     

Chemical speciation and bioaccessibility of lead in surface soil and house dust,Lavrion urban area,Attiki, Hellas

In the Lavrion urban area study, Hellas, a five-step sequential extraction method was applied on samples of ‘soil’ (n = 224), affected by long-term mining and metallurgical activities, and house dust (n = 127), for the purpose of studying the potential bioaccessibility of lead and other metals to humans. In this paper, the Pb concentrations in soil and house dust samples are discussed, together with those in rocks and children’s blood. Lead is mainly associated with the carbonate, Fe–Mn oxides and residual fractions in soil and house dust. Considering the very low pH of gastric fluids (1–3), a high amount of metals, present in soil (810–152,000 mg/kg Pb) and house dust (418–18,600 mg/kg Pb), could be potentially bioaccessible. Consequently, children in the neighbourhoods with a large amount of metallurgical processing wastes have high blood-Pb concentrations (5.98–60.49 μg/100 ml; median 17.83 μg/100 ml; n = 235). It is concluded that the Lavrion urban and sub-urban environment is extremely hazardous to human health, and the Hellenic State authorities should urgently tackle this health-related hazard in order to improve the living conditions of local residents.     

Maternal and fetal blood lead concentrations under non-occupational lead exposure and associated factors in Pakistan

This study in selected Pakistani populations was conducted to determine the blood lead levels (BLL) in mothers and their developing fetuses. Associated factors were correlated with the maternal BLL. Blood samples from 113 pregnant women and their umbilical cords were examined for BLL and cord blood lead levels through a graphite furnace-attached atomic absorption spectrophotometer. A structured questionnaire was also used to obtain sociodemographic and obstetric data based on basic demographic data, reproductive history, hemoglobin levels, gestational age, parity, mode of delivery, maternal and baby weight, drinking water, menarche age, blood pressure, lead (Pb)-containing eye liner use, smoking, and nutritional status. In order to assess the strength of the relationship between different parameters, Pearson's coefficient correlation was utilized and their significance was determined by applying the t-test. Data demonstrated that the maternal BLL were always higher than the recommended concentrations of 10 µg/dl and many factors contributed towards such results. Drinking water seemed to affect the Pb concentration as women using spring water had relatively higher BLL. The calcium concentration in pregnant women and their fetuses ranged from 9 to 13 mg/dl. Majority of the pregnant women were undergraduates with 12 years of education (equivalent to high school in the United States). Evidence indicates that the avoidance of Pb intake and its associated factors in the study area will diminish risk to newborns.     

Correction to: Determining soil quality in urban agricultural regions by soil enzyme-based index

Environmental Geochemistry and Health - Unfortunately, in the original publication of the article, Prof. Yang Sik Ok’s affiliation was incorrectly published. The author’s affiliation is...     

Air lead concentrations in Birmingham,England — a comparison between levels inside and outside inner-city homes

Air lead concentrations were monitored for seven consecutive days at two locations inside and one location immediately outside 97 houses in inner-city Birmingham. Concentrations in the bedroom and playroom were similar to each other, but usually lower than those found outdoors. The mean internal air lead concentration was 0.26 g/m³ (n=1206) and the mean external concentration, 0.43 g/m³ (n=605). The mean of the individual internal:external ratios was 0.61 and similar to others cited in the literature. The study indicates that, in the absence of any major internal sources of lead, the mean external air lead concentration is a good predictor of the mean air internal air lead concentration.