Disposal practices for unused medications in New Zealand

BackgroundThere is an enhanced international awareness that the improper disposal of unwanted and unused medications may have a detrimental effect on the environment.ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to determine the proportion of unused medications in New Zealand that are not returned to a pharmacy for disposal and are instead disposed of via land fill or water systems. In addition, this study intended to identify why these medications were unused or unwanted.DesignAn online survey was placed on the New Zealand National Poisons Centre website for a period of three months during 2008. This consisted of a series of questions with predefined answer sets and asked about collection of medications, why there may be unused medications, storage of medications and disposal of medications.ResultsThis survey was completed by 452 individuals. 62% of respondents currently had unwanted medications in their house. The most common reason for people to have leftover medication was ‘medical condition improved or resolved’ (n = 307). Depending on formulation type, between 13–24% of unused medications were returned to pharmacies with tablets and capsules being most likely to be returned and liquids most likely to be added to water systems.ConclusionsA significant percentage of unwanted medications are disposed of via routes that have the potential to adversely affect the environment. Reducing excess medications and wastage as well as education of appropriate disposal techniques may minimize their potential impact on the environment.     

Beyond the medicine cabinet: an analysis of where and why medications accumulate

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) from medications can enter the environment as trace contaminants, at individual concentrations generally below a part per billion (microg/L). APIs enter the environment primarily via the discharge of raw and treated sewage. Residues of unmetabolized APIs from parenteral and enteral drugs are excreted in feces and urine, and topically applied medications are washed from skin during bathing. These trace residues may pose risks for aquatic life and cause concern with regard to subsequent human exposure. APIs also enter the environment from the disposal of unwanted medications directly to sewers and trash. The relative significance of this route compared with excretion and bathing is poorly understood and has been subject to much speculation. Two major aspects of uncertainty exist: the percentage of any particular API in the environment originating from disposal is unknown, and disposal undoubtedly occurs from a variety of dispersed sources. Sources of disposal, along with the types and quantities of APIs resulting from each source, are important to understand so that effective pollution prevention approaches can be designed and implemented. Accumulation of leftover, unwanted drugs poses three major concerns: (i) APIs disposed to sewage or trash compose a diverse source of potential chemical stressors in the environment. (ii) Accumulated drugs represent increased potential for drug diversion, with its attendant risks of unintentional poisonings and abuse. (iii) Leftover drugs represent wasted healthcare resources and lost opportunities for medical treatment. This paper has four major purposes: (1) Define the processes, actions, and behaviors that control and drive the consumption, accumulation, and need for disposal of pharmaceuticals. (2) Provide an overview of the diverse locations where drugs are used and accumulate. (3) Present a summary of the first cataloging of APIs disposed by a defined subpopulation. (4) Identify opportunities for pollution prevention and source reduction.     

Balancing the health benefits and environmental risks of pharmaceuticals: Diclofenac as an example

Pharmaceuticals are designed to improve human and animal health, but even the most beneficial pharmaceuticals might raise some questions concerning the consequences of exposure to non-target organisms. To illustrate this situation and using diclofenac as a case-study, we analyze global consumption and occurrence data to identify hot spots of consumption without occurrence data, review the scientific literature on the harmful environmental effects to determine whether the observed concentrations in freshwater are of environmental concern, summarize the current pharmaceutical and environmental policies to highlight policy gaps, and suggest a series of research and policy recommendations, which can be summarized as follows: we need to improve the current knowledge on occurrence in freshwaters to properly implement environmental policies (i), diclofenac might pose a risk to non-target organisms in freshwater (ii); the harmful effects that some pharmaceuticals may have on the environment are not always addressed by environmental policies (iii).     

喀纳斯自然保护区生态系统服务价值变化研究

生态系统可持续发展是随着全球范围内可持续发展研究的深入和人们对环境破坏和资源利用认识的不断加深而逐渐形成的.人类社会的可持续发展从根本上取决于生态系统及其服务的可持续性,本文应用喀纳斯自然保护区1980、2005年两期Landsat TM影像解译数据,参照谢高地等制定的中国生态系统单位面积生态服务当量因子和新疆布尔津县单位面积农田生态系统提供的食物生产服务的经济价值,确定喀纳斯自然保护区生态系统单位面积生态服务价值系数,对保护区生态系统服务价值及其变化进行了估算和比较.结果表明,林地和草地是喀纳斯自然保护区主要的土地利用类型,25年间土地利用总体上发生了明显变化,林地面积在减少,革地、水域、建设用地面积略有增加;保护区生态系统服务价值由1980年的37.289亿元减少至2005年的36.351亿元,有林地和离覆盖度草地的减少是服务价值降低的主要原因;主要由林地、草地和水域提供的维持生物多样性、水文调节、气候调节、保持土壤等单项功能服务价值均呈现不同程度地减少,说明保护区生态系统结构和功能已受到影响,保护区生态环境质量不断趋向退化.     

三峡库区船舶污染及综合防治对策研究

三峡大坝建成后,将形成一个长662.9km,面积1045km^2的巨型水库,水库的蓄水会使库区水体的稀释自净能力降低。而目前重庆市辖区内船舶总数已达6000艘左右,旅客日均流量在6万人左右。船舶含油污水、生活污水、船舶垃圾等对库区水质造成破坏：其中油类排放量将为5694t/a,CODcr为1533t/a,BOD5为766.5t/a,SS为1840t/a,生活垃圾为5000t/a,会严重影响整个三峡库区水生态系统。近年来虽然国家重点执行对船舶油污水排放实行控制,船舶垃圾进行接收处理等多项措施,但据调查,随着航运业的发展,现有船舶污染治理主要还在管理、宣传、执法、港口设施、船舶设备更新等7个方面存在问题,船舶对库区水环境的污染日趋严惩。为避免船舶对库区水域的污染,除对库区航运规模、船舶数量和作总量控制外,还从资金、机构建设、设施建设、环保执法、船舶设备更新等方面提出了综合防治对策,使因船舶排放污染物对库区水域造成的污染减少到最低程度,确保三峡库区水污染整治规划目标的早日实现。     

The effect of suspended particles coated by humic acid on the toxicity of pharmaceuticals, estrogens, and phenolic compounds

The sorption characteristics of 10 organic chemicals, categorized as pharmaceuticals, estrogens and phenols, onto synthetic suspended particle (i.e., alumina) coated with humic acid were investigated according to their octanol-water partition coefficient (K(ow)). Chemical analyses were performed with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The effects of particles on the toxicity reduction were evaluated using bioassay tests, using Daphnia magna and Vibrio fisheri for phenols and pharmaceuticals, and the human breast cancer cell MCF-7 for estrogens. Sorption studies revealed that 22 and 38% of octylphenol and pentachlorophenol, respectively, were removed by suspended particle, whereas 2,4-dichlorophenol was not removed, which was directly proportional to the logK(ow) value. Similar to the sorption tests, suspended particles significantly reduced the acute toxicities of octylphenol and pentachlorophenol to D. magna and V. fisheri (p<0.01), but there was no significant difference in the toxicity of 2,4-dichlorophenol to D. magna (p=0.8374). Pharmaceuticals, such as ibuprofen, gemfibrozil and tolfenamic acid, showed no discernible sorption to the suspended particle, with the exception of diclofenac, which revealed 11% sorption. For estrogens, such as estrone, 17beta-estradiol and 17alpha-ethynylestradiol, the results indicated no reduction in the sorption test. This may be attributed to the polar interaction by functional groups in sorption between pharmaceuticals and estrogens and suspended particles. In the bioassays, presence of suspended particles did not significantly modify the toxicity of pharmaceuticals (regardless of their K(ow) values) to D. magna, V. fisheri or E-screen.     

核电与核废物管理

核能是一种能量密度大、稳定性好、燃料运输量小、综合经济效益好的能源。世界各国核电在总发电量中的比例逐年上升,1992年达17％,而我国仅占0.1％。在目前我国电力短缺的条件下,发展核电、提高核电在总电量中的比例,不失为我国发展能源工业的一个战略目标。在发展核电过程中,要重视核废物的处理和处置,以保证人类健康和环境免遭放射性的污染。     

崇明岛中长期碳排放预测及其影响因素分析

为更好地推动崇明低碳生态岛的建设,在应用以自下而上的部门法为基础的区域范围温室气体排放评估核算方法,全面核算崇明岛能源消费及温室气体排放现状的基础上,应用LEAP模型,通过情景分析预测崇明岛中长期能源消费需求以及温室气体排放水平,并进一步应用对数平均指数法(LMDI)对影响崇明岛未来温室气体排放的主要因素进行了定量分析。研究表明:参考情景下,崇明岛能源消费总量从2010年的101万吨标煤增加到2050年的533万吨标煤,净碳足迹从2010年的238万吨CO2e增加到2050年的579万吨CO2e。崇明岛能源消费需求和碳排放增加的主要驱动因素是未来的经济发展、人口增长和生活水平的提高,但是通过一系列的优化,尤其是能源结构的变化和能耗强度的下降,减排情景下,崇明岛能源消费总量有可能在2039年左右达到峰值,并有望在2050年左右实现"零碳岛"的长期发展目标。结合定量分析的结论,进一步提出了实现崇明岛低碳发展中长期目标的可能性和重点发展领域。     

中国环境保护投资失真问题分析与建议

在对“十五”期间中国环保投资进行分析的基础上，重点研究环保投资结构与环保投资的重点。结果表明，环保投资口径偏大、投资方向与需求不匹配、投资结构不合理是影响环境效益的重要因素。若以最直接相关的污水处理投资和垃圾处理投资替代城市环境基础设施建设投资口径．将使同期全国环境保护投资缩水50％左右。城市环境基础设施建设投资总量的迅速增加和环保投资口径的虚化。已经掩盖了环境污染治理投资不足的严峻现实，环保投资的失真现象严重。为确保投资效益与环境效益相协调。建议明确环保投资概念．修改现有的环保投资口径。在进一步加大环保投资力度的同时。提高资金的使用效率．以强化污染治理效果。     

近15年来长江源区土地利用变化及其生态环境效应

长江源区是我国重要的水源涵养区,也是高海拔地区生物多样性最集中的地区和生态变化最为敏感的地区。基于1986年TM和2000年ETM+卫星遥感数据和野外实地调查,采用GIS软件和景观生态空间分布格局分析方法,对长江源区近15年来土地利用类型的时空变化进行了研究。结果表明：1986～2000年,源区林地和湿地面积减少54.2 %和42.69 %,建设用地、耕地和未利用土地面积分别增加120 %、43.83 %和21.1 %。全区土地利用的空间位置转换面积大于其数量变化,土地利用类型总变化的面积大小依次是草地＞未利用土地＞湿地＞水域＞林地＞耕地＞建设用地。土地利用动态转化过程以草地转化为未利用土地、湿地转化为草地和未利用地逆转为草地为主要特征。15年里景观破碎化程度加剧,分维数和多样性指数增加,优势度降低,景观异质性增强。长江源区脆弱的生态体系对土地利用变化响应强烈,造成水土流失与沙漠化程度加剧,导致大范围高寒草甸、草原植被退化,湿地萎缩。气候变化和人类经济活动是导致研究区土地利用变化的主要因素。     

Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems

The Maritime and Continental Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems are considered in the context of environmental impacts-habitat destruction, alien introductions, and pollution. Their ability to recover from perturbation is discussed in the light of present scientific knowledge, and the methods used to control impacts are reviewed. It is concluded that techniques of waste disposal are still inadequate, adequate training in environmental and conservation principles for Antarctic personnel in many countries is lacking, and scientific investigations may be a much more serious threat than tourism to the integrity of these ecosystems. Some priorities crucial to future management are suggested.     

RS与GIS支持下的南京市景观格局动态变化研究

利用1986、1994、2000年的TM图像和2000年的土地利用现状图,运用GIS和核心景观指数研究南京市自1986年以来景观格局的动态演变规律。结果表明：南京市在快速城市化的过程中,城市景观结构的变化主要表现为耕地、绿地、水体和未利用地等自然或半自然景观向城市、农村居民地、工矿用地以及交通用地等人文景观转变;景观的多样性增加,斑块的平均面积增大,分离度、破碎度和孔隙度减小,城市的开发趋向有序化、规模化;但由于人类活动作用方式或作用程度的不同,不同的景观类型在同一时间段,或者同一景观类型在不同的时间内空间格局的转变模式不同,1986~1994年城市扩展的速度很快,开发比较混乱,城市、农村居民地和交通用地等人文景观的面积大幅增加,耕地、绿地和未利用地的面积大量减少,斑块分布不均匀,空隙度增加,1994~2000年城市扩展的速度减慢,开发趋向有序化,除耕地外,其他景观类型的分离度、破碎度和孔隙度减小,空间分布趋向均匀。     

Consumption-based approach for assessing the contribution of hospitals towards the load of pharmaceutical residues in municipal wastewater

Hospitals are considered as major sources of pharmaceutical residues discharged to municipal wastewater, but recent experimental studies showed that the contribution of hospitals to the loads of selected, quantifiable pharmaceuticals in sewage treatment plant (STP) influents was limited. However such conclusions are made based on the experimental analysis of pharmaceuticals in hospital wastewater which is hindered by a number of factors such as access to suitable sampling sites, difficulties in obtaining representative samples and availability of analytical methods. Therefore, this study explores a refined and extended consumption-based approach to predict the contribution of six selected Australian hospitals to the loads of 589 pharmaceuticals in municipal wastewater. In addition, the possibility that hospital-specific substances are present at levels that may pose a risk for human health was evaluated. For 63 to 84% of the pharmaceuticals investigated, the selected hospitals are not a major point source with individual contributions likely to be less than 15% which is in line with previous experimental studies. In contrast, between 10 and 20% of the pharmaceuticals consumed in the selected hospitals are exclusively used in these hospitals. For these hospital-specific substances, 57 distinct pharmaceuticals may cause concerns for human health as concentrations predicted in hospital effluents are less than 100-fold lower than effect thresholds. However, when concentrations were predicted in the influent of the corresponding STP, only 12 compounds (including the antineoplastic vincristine, the antibiotics tazobactam and piperacillin) remain in concentration close to effect thresholds, but further decrease is expected after removal in STP, dilution in the receiving stream and drinking water treatment. The results of this study suggest that risks of human exposure to the pharmaceuticals exclusively administered in the investigated hospitals are limited and decentralised wastewater treatment at these sites would not have a substantial impact on pharmaceutical loads entering STPs, and finally the environment. Overall, our approach demonstrates a unique opportunity to screen for pharmaceuticals used in hospitals and identifying priority pollutants in hospital wastewater explicitly accounting for site-specific conditions. Being based on consumption and loads discharged by hospitals into municipal wastewater, it is not limited by 1) the big effort to obtain representative samples from sewers, 2) the availability of sensitive chemical analysis or 3) a pre-selection of consumption data (e.g. consumption volume).     

Determination of appropriate service quality attributes for household toilets in rural settlements of India based on user perception

In many developing countries, including India, governments have implemented programs for improvement of environment and health in rural settlements through the provision of a subsidized household toilet with specifications selected and benchmarked from the experts’ perspective with only partial consideration of users’ perception. Provision of household toilets with specifications or service quality as perceived by users is a requirement for the sustainability and sustained use of toilet infrastructure. Users do not judge only the overall quality of a service but also base their judgment on a few attributes which are either perceived to be relatively more important or where there is a wider gap between expectation and perception . This paper presents a review of the service quality attributes of the household toilet as found in the relevant literature and provides a step-by-step approach for identifying appropriate attributes based on users’ perspective. While an initial list of attributes was developed based on literature review, initial selection and modifications of the attributes’ definition and units were carried out as per our judgment. This list was further modified through focus groups discussions and incorporating expert opinions. The final list of attributes is selected based on the stated importance level of attributes as perceived by users. The study finds that the attributes prioritized by the users are different from the experts. While government policies emphasize on the construction of toilet, maintenance of toilet is found an important issue for the users.     

Monitoring and evaluation of shallow well water quality near a waste disposal site

This study identifies shallow well water contamination sources near the Mae-Hia waste disposal site and the clarification of the extent of well water contamination caused by leachate generated from the disposal site. The water of 40 shallow wells around the Mae-Hia disposal site, where three potential sources of groundwater pollution exist, was sampled and analyzed for physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Water samples were taken every month from June 1989 to May 1990 along with a measurement of well water levels in order to estimate the groundwater flow direction. Comparison with the drinking water standards/guidelines showed that well water in the study area was not suitable for drinking due to the high contamination of total and fecal coliforms and moderate contamination by nitrate and manganese. It was found that the level of conductivity, total solids, color, chloride, chemical oxygen demand, sodium, copper, and lead in the groundwater of wells located adjacent to the disposal site were higher than in other areas. In addition, higher concentrations of sodium, chloride, calcium, and magnesium in the wells located downstream of the groundwater flow were recorded. Estimation of a leachate plume using chloride as an indicator showed that the wells located in the eastern part of the disposal site, a dominant direction of groundwater flow, were contaminated by leachate generated from the waste disposal site.     

Global estimates of soil carbon sequestration via livestock waste: a STELLA simulation

It has become increasingly well documented that human activities are enhancing the greenhouse effect and altering the global climate. Identifying strategies to mitigate atmospheric carbon dioxide emissions on the national level are therefore critical. Fossil fuel combustion is primarily responsible for the perturbation of the global carbon cycle, although the influence of humans extends far beyond the combustion of fossil fuels. Changes in land use arising from human activities contribute substantially to atmospheric carbon dioxide; however, land use changes can act as a carbon dioxide sink as well. A soil carbon model was built using STELLA to explore how soil organic carbon sequestration (SOC) varies over a range of values for key parameters and to estimate the amount of global soil carbon sequestration from livestock waste. To obtain soil carbon sequestration estimates, model simulations occurred for 11 different livestock types and with data for eight regions around the world. The model predicted that between 1980 and 1995, United States soils were responsible for the sequestration of 444–602 Tg C from livestock waste. Model simulations further predicted that during the same period, global soil carbon sequestration from livestock waste was 2,810–4,218 Tg C. Our estimates for global SOC sequestration are modest in proportion to other terrestrial carbon sinks (i.e. forest regrowth); however, livestock waste does represent a potential for long-term soil carbon gain. SOC generated from livestock waste is another example of how human activities and land use changes are altering soil processes around the world. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

基于安徽省土地利用变化的地形梯度效应分析

为揭示地形因素与土地利用空间格局演变的关系,以安徽省2000年、2005年以及2010年Landsat TM影像和DEM数据为数据源,利用坡向、地形起伏度、坡度变率和地形位指数多种地形因子,并结合地学信息图谱分析理论从综合角度系统研究土地利用结构时空分异格局在地形梯度上的变化特点及其规律。结果表明:1)研究区主要的土地利用类型是耕地和林地,其次是建设用地和未利用土地,且建设用地面积逐期增加趋势显著。2)2000~2010年研究区不同土地利用类型在不同地形梯度区间的分异规律存在明显差异。低地形梯度范围是耕地、水域和建设用地的优势分布区;中地形梯度范围是草地的集中分布区;林地的优势分布区集中在高地形梯度范围。3)2000~2010年研究区土地利用图谱以稳定型和后期变化型为主,低地形梯度和高地形梯度是稳定型图谱的集中分布区,中低、中高和高地形梯度范围是后期变化型图谱的优势分布区。2000~2005年林地的优势分布区有向较低地形位梯度扩张的趋势,其中,耕地是主要的转入来源。2005~2010年耕地的优势分布区有向较高地形位梯度扩张的趋势,变化模式主要为:"林地–耕地"、"未利用地–耕地"和"草地–耕地"。