The effect of turbulence on the rate of evaporation of LNG on water

The present study provides new measurements of the rate of evaporation of cryogenic liquids, liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquid nitrogen (LN₂), floating on a water surface with different levels of turbulence intensity. The turbulent water surface is generated with an upward-pointing submerged jet with controlled jet velocity, an approach which has often been used in studies of free-surface turbulence. Direct measurements of the rate of evaporation were carried out for different pool thicknesses and turbulence intensities of the water surface. These tests reveal a strong dependence of the evaporation rate on the turbulence intensity, as well as a dependence on the thickness of the cryogenic liquid layer above the water surface. Models of LNG spills on water currently use a single rate of evaporation; these findings show that this approach is inadequate. Future models should incorporate the water turbulence intensity, and possibly the LNG spill thickness for improved accuracy.     

Forced dispersion of LNG vapor with water curtain

Installation of effective safety measures to prevent and mitigate an accidental LNG release is critical. Water curtains are usually inexpensive, simple and reliable and currently have been recognized as an efficient technique to control and mitigate various hazards in the process industries including LNG industry. Actions of a water spray consist of a combination of several physical mechanisms. Detailed analysis of the complex mechanisms and the effects of water spray features to control and mitigate potential LNG vapor cloud are still unclear. This paper discusses the experimental research conducted by MKOPSC to study the physical phenomena involved and the effect of different types of water curtains parameters when applied for LNG vapor. The data from medium scale out-door experiments at the Brayton Fire Training School (BFTF), Texas, are summarized here to understand the relative importance of induced mechanical mixing effects, dilution with air, and heat transfer between water droplets and the LNG vapor. Field test results have determined that water curtains can reduce the concentration of the LNG vapor cloud. Due to the water curtain mechanisms of entrainment of air, dilution of vapor with entrained air, transfer of momentum and heat to the gas cloud, water curtain can disperse LNG vapor cloud to some extent.     

液化天然气在水面地面扩散对比研究

主要利用FLACS软件,对水陆两处不同的界面下,LNG在同等气象条件下的扩散情况做了相关研究,利用FLACS软件前置处理器CASD对建立简单模型,拟定计算方案进行模拟仿真,对模拟结果进行整理分析后,得到水陆两个不同扩散层面液化天然气气液两相扩散结果与最大扩散距离。处理数据得到LNG气液两相扩散距离,对比结果可知LNG在水面蒸发速率大于地面蒸发速率且扩散距离远远大于地面扩散距离,可燃区域覆盖面更为宽广,说明水面扩散速率大于地面扩散速率。     

Use of water spray curtain to disperse LNG vapor clouds

Effective safety measures to prevent and mitigate the consequences of an accidental release of flammable LNG are critical. Water spray curtain is currently recognized as an effective technique to control and mitigate various hazards in the industries. It has been used to absorb, dilute and disperse both toxic and flammable vapor cloud. It is also used as protection against heat radiation, in case of fighting vapor cloud fire. Water curtain has also been considered as one of the most economic and promising LNG vapor cloud control techniques. Water curtains are expected to enhance LNG vapor cloud dispersion mainly through mechanical effects, dilution, and thermal effects. The actual phenomena involved in LNG vapor and water curtain interaction were not clearly established from previous research. LNG spill experiments have been performed at the Brayton Fire Training Field at Texas A&M University (TAMU) to understand the effect of water curtain in controlling and dispersing LNG vapor cloud. This paper summarizes experimental methodology and presents data from two water curtain tests. The analysis of the test results are also presented to identify the effectiveness of these two types of water spray curtains in enhancing the LNG vapor cloud dispersion.     

水幕稀释罐区LNG泄漏扩散试验与模拟研究

为缓解液化天然气(LNG)泄漏事故后果,利用有色发烟剂模拟LNG泄漏扩散行为,研究水幕的关键参数,包括安装位置、安装高度等对罐区LNG泄漏云团稀释效果的影响,并采用计算流体力学(CFD)软件FLUENT验证试验结果。模拟结果与试验结果基本吻合,表明有色发烟剂试验能够定性模拟罐区LNG泄漏扩散及水幕稀释云团效果。水幕安装在储罐与泄漏源中间,并且安装高度高于云团2倍以上,能够有效稀释LNG云团,保护储罐安全。水幕稀释云团的主要物理机制是液滴与空气间动量交换抬升云团高度,形成的旋涡卷吸空气进入云团内部,加速云团稀释。     

Acoustic analysis of blast waves produced by rapid phase transition of LNG released on water

Massive offshore and onshore storage of fuel have led the international community to raise questions about the hazards on the surrounding installations and people. Among the possible accidental scenarios when cryogenic gas as liquefied natural gas (LNG) is spilled on water at a very fast rate, the phenomenon of rapid phase transition (RPT) may occur: large amounts of energy are released during phase transition which can generate explosions. The related consequences should be added to the possible consequences of fire in terms of flash fire, fireball, pool fire, and vapour cloud explosion for confined and congested geometry surrounding the release point.In this paper, the analysis of RPT of LNG has been studied from the point of view of blast wave production, through ab initio acoustic analysis for monopole source. Maximum overpressures, as calculated at the source point and along the blast pathway are compared with results of large scale experiments. Safety distances are given for the sake of comparison with threshold distances reported in the open literature.     

Evaluating the potential for overpressures from the ignition of an LNG vapor cloud during offloading

Ignition of natural gas (composed primarily of methane) is generally not considered to pose explosion hazards when in unconfined and low- or medium-congested areas, as most of the areas within LNG regasification facilities can typically be classified. However, as the degrees of confinement and/or congestion increase, the potential exists for the ignition of a methane cloud to result in damaging overpressures (as demonstrated by the recurring residential explosions due to natural gas leaks). Therefore, it is prudent to examine a proposed facility’s design to identify areas where vapor cloud explosions (VCEs) may cause damage, particularly if the damage may extend off site.An area of potential interest for VCEs is the dock, while an LNG carrier is being offloaded: the vessel hull provides one degree of confinement and the shoreline may provide another; some degree of congestion is provided by the dock and associated equipment.In this paper, the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software FLACS is used to evaluate the consequences of the ignition of a flammable vapor cloud from an LNG spill during the LNG carrier offloading process. The simulations will demonstrate different approaches that can be taken to evaluate a vapor cloud explosion scenario in a partially confined and partially congested geometry.     

LNG as a potential alternative fuel - Safety and security of storage facilities

The aim of this article is to summarize the safety and security aspects of storing of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) as a potential alternative fuel. The contribution deals with possible scenarios of accidents associated with LNG storage facilities and with a methodology for the assessment of vulnerability of such facilities. The protection of LNG storage facilities as element of critical infrastructure should also be a matter of interest to the state. The study presents the results of determination of hazardous zones around LNG facilities in the event of various sorts of release. For calculations, the programs ALOHA, EFFECTS and TerEx were used and results obtained were compared. Scenarios modelled within this study represent a possible approach to the preliminary assessment of risk that should be verified by more detailed modelling (CFD). These scenarios can also be used for a quick estimation of areas endangered by an incident or accident. The results of modelling of the hazardous zones contribute to a reduction in risk of major accidents associated with these potential alternative energy sources.     

池塘水体微生物群落代谢活性的动态变化及其与水质的关系

全程跟踪监测罗非鱼混养池塘的微生物群落代谢活性的动态变化,并分析了微生物群落代谢功能与水质之间的相互关系.结果表明,异养细菌数量和微生物群落代谢活性在各时间点无显著性差异(p＞0.05),9月和5月的代谢功能多样性指数均显著高于6月(p＜0.01),微生物群落对糖类及其衍生物、代谢中间产物及次生代谢物的平均利用率显著高于氨基酸及其衍生物、脂肪酸及脂类(p＜0.05).不同的微生物群落代谢指标与水质因子的相关性有所差异,其中,水体异养细菌数量与pH值和TOC呈显著负相关(p＜0.05);微生物群落代谢活性与PO43-呈极显著负相关(P＜0.01);群落代谢功能多样性与PO43-呈显著负相关,与NO2--N呈显著正相关(p＜0.05).微生物群落对糖类及其衍生物、脂肪酸及脂类、代谢中间产物及次生代谢物等碳源的利用率均与PO43-呈显著的负相关关系,表明磷元素在微生物群落降解不同类型的碳源物质过程中具有重要作用.     

水库工程建设施工期水环境评价分析

水是生命之源,生产之要,生态之基。人类几千年的生长繁衍都离不开水,随着科技进步和人类观念的改变,水库对水资源的储存及调配有十分重要的作用。我县处于云贵高原和广西丘陵盆地过渡地带,地势起伏较大,喀斯特发育,水资源在时间和空间上分布极不均衡,因此水库的建设尤为重要。但在水库工程的建设当中,潜藏污染周围环境的危险,包括水污染和土壤污染。严重的环境污染会影响人们的身体健康,甚至会影响社会的平衡发展,而且随着人们观念意识的改变,人们逐渐提高了对于环境的重视度。所以,对水库周围水环境和土壤环境的问题研究是十分必要的,本文通过对于水库周围的环境提出了一些有效的管理措施。     

含水率和粒度分形分布对铀尾矿库覆土层氡析出规律的影响研究

为了探究覆土层含水率和粒度分形分布对氡析出规律的影响,制备不同粒度分维值和含水率的覆土试样进行氡析出试验.根据氡产生的机理,设计一套氡测量装置并用局部静态法以测定相应覆土层表面的氡析出率.采用相关分析方法研究覆土层氡析出规律与含水率和分维值的关系,构建氡析出率与含水率和分维值之间的分段线性函数.结果表明:在相同含水率、不同粒度分形分布时,氡析出率随分维值增大而减小,并且当分维值增加到一定值时,氡析出率开始趋于稳定;在相同粒度分形分布、不同含水率时,氡析出率先是随着含水率增大而增大,但是当含水率增加到一定值时,氡析出率却开始减小.氡析出率会受到含水率和粒度分形分布的综合影响.     

Ripples in a pond: an open system model of the evolution of safety culture.

The development of an effective safety culture is essential to promote safe operations. Previous studies have either identified the characteristics of effective safety culture analytically, inferring them from signs and symbols derived from working practices, or have restricted the study of the development of safety culture to workers within an organisation. This paper describes a large-scale survey-based study in which the factors influencing the evolution of safety culture are identified empirically and, drawing upon open systems theory, are also extended beyond the bounds of the organisation. Three major determinants of safety culture are identified: safety concerns, influences and actions. Sub-components within each of these categories are also identified and the relationship between them is hypothesised.     

Modeling the vapor source term associated with the spill of LNG into a sump or impoundment area

The recent publication of evaluation protocols for vapor source term models and vapor dispersion models have influenced the modeling approaches that can be used for approval of new and expansion projects at LNG receiving terminals. In the past few years the scientific basis of integral vapor source term models has been questioned with growing concerns regarding their validity. In this paper, the shallow water equations (SWEs) were solved to study the characteristics of the evaporating LNG pool associated with a constant flow rate spill of LNG into a concrete sump. In the early stages of pool spreading, the leading edge thickness profile of the SWE model scales with the square root of the distance from the leading edge as the pool spreads. After the edge of the pool reaches the wall, the reflected wave forms a hydraulic jump that travels back towards the center of the pool at a speed that is considerably slower than the initial spreading of the pool. Once the hydraulic jump reaches the center, the pool assumes a nearly flat free surface for the rest of the spill. The pool spreading and the rate of evaporation from the SWEs were then compared to the solution provided by the integral model, PHAST. The two approaches were found to agree well with one another. The SWE model was also used to demonstrate the influence of an elevated spill source. With an elevated source, the LNG pool spreads faster, significantly increasing the initial rate of vaporization and peak vaporization rate. This increase in the initial rate of vaporization could lead to an increase in the vapor cloud hazard distance. The SWE model was also used to demonstrate the influence of an inclined sump floor in the shape of an inverted cone where the spilling LNG accumulates in the low vertex of the cone. Inclined sump floors can be used to significantly reduce the cumulative evaporation, making them attractive as a possible mitigation approach in cases where a containment sump is located close to a property boundary.     

城市污水再生处理工艺中发光细菌毒性变化的初步研究

保障再生水的生态安全是污水再生利用过程中非常关键的问题.本文采用发光细菌毒性测试方法测定了2个城市污水再生利用示范工程工艺流程中生物毒性的变化,尤其是可能生成有毒副产物的氯消毒过程中的毒性变化.结果表明,二级生物处理能显著降低污水的发光细菌毒性,但氯消毒显著提高了污水的毒性,并且脱氯后污水的毒性仍保持较高的水平,对生态安全造成了潜在威胁.同时,通过比较2种污水水质发现,DOC(溶解性有机碳含量)和UV254(254 nm处的紫外吸收值)较高的水样,消毒后的毒性较大,认为DOC和UV254可望作为预测污水消毒生态风险的水质指标,为污水消毒实践中确定安全合理的污水水质条件提供一定的依据.     

Numerical simulation of ammonia dispersion around a water curtain

Water curtains have been suggested as a way of limiting the spread of ammonia in the event of an accidental release. Several field experiments have already been performed to investigate the interaction between a water curtain and a cloud of ammonia, most recently by Bara and Dusserre (1997, J. Loss Prev. Ind., 10(3), 179–183). Those experiments have been modelled numerically, using the computational code Mercure. The calculated velocities and concentrations agree reasonably well with the measurements.     

黄河恶化水质条件下新型阻垢剂的试验研究与分析

结垢是火电厂循环冷却水运行过程中的主要问题之一,在高钙硬、高碱度、高浓缩倍数下运行时更为突出.近年来,黄河内蒙古段水质钙硬度和碱度很大,属于高结垢性水质.根据内蒙古地区以黄河水为循环水补给水电厂的实际情况,结合电厂循环水系统阻垢缓蚀剂开发的已有经验,复配出新型有机膦系复合配方水处理药剂.分别采用现有药剂和改进的新药荆对黄河内蒙占段发电厂常用的凝汽器管材进行循环水动态模拟试验,黄河水选用正常及恶化两种水样.结果表明,水质恶化时,使用高效药剂可以使其安全浓缩倍率增加为3.06倍.且在同样浓缩倍率下,污垢热阻值远低于用普通药剂的.研究表明,新药剂对恶化水质有明显的阻垢分散作用,能较好地满足现场运行的要求.     

蒸汽锅炉改热水锅炉应注意的问题

系统地分析了蒸汽锅炉在改装为热水锅炉时存在的问题,提出改进方法及今后的注意事项。     

Performance evaluation of a water mist system in semiconductor wet bench fires

Wet benches are typically utilized in semiconductor facilities for wafer and parts cleaning. Heaters and some flammable liquids, such as acetone and isopropyl alcohol (IPA), are employed during the cleaning process. Wet bench fires have caused serious losses in the semiconductor industry. To assess the fire protection performance, several field tests were performed using a water mist system installed in the wet bench. In this study, acetone pan fuel was used as fire source. The test parameters were operational pressure, pan size, nozzle location, cylinder obstruction and degree of door closure. An appropriate design for operating pressure and the location of water mist nozzles extinguished wet bench fires effectively in the early fire stages. The nozzles are suggested to be fixed above or on the each side of the pan, ensuring that mist can completely cover a pan surface with sufficient momentum. With this suggested design, fires can be extinguished in the pan and do not spread over the wet bench.     

新型环保水系灭火剂的制备及灭火效果测试

对化学添加剂的灭火原理及其灭火性能进行研究,利用表面活性剂的复配原理,制备出pH值呈中性、完全溶于水的高效环保型水系灭火剂。并通过灭火平台系统对油盘火和固体堆垛的灭火效果进行测试分析。结果表明,含有3%添加量和5%添加量的配方灭火剂的灭火效能比使用纯水有较大的提高,对油盘的火势面积加权计算可以得到添加该配方的灭火剂灭火效能约为纯水的2.5倍。含有5%添加量的配方灭火剂对木垛火的灭火效能约为纯水的1倍,而且不易复燃。对研究可燃物质的阻燃以及消防灭火具有理论指导意义和实际应用价值。     

Modelling the mitigation of a hydrogen deflagration in a nuclear waste silo ullage with water fog

During the decommissioning of certain legacy nuclear waste storage plants it is possible that significant releases of hydrogen gas could occur. Such an event could result in the formation of a flammable mixture within the silo ullage and, hence, the potential risk of ignition and deflagration occurring, threatening the structural integrity of the silo. Very fine water mist fogs have been suggested as a possible method of mitigating the overpressure rise, should a hydrogen–air deflagration occur. In the work presented here, the FLACS CFD code has been used to predict the potential explosion overpressure reduction that might be achieved using water fog mitigation for a range of scenarios where a hydrogen–air mixture, of a pre-specified concentration (containing 800 L of hydrogen), uniformly fills a volume located in a model silo ullage space, and is ignited giving rise to a vented deflagration. The simulation results suggest that water fog could significantly reduce the peak explosion overpressure, in a silo ullage, for lower concentration hydrogen–air mixtures up to 20%, but would require very high fog densities to be achieved to mitigate 30% hydrogen–air mixtures.