Effects of height and habitat type on egg parasitism by Trichogramma minutum and T. pretiosum (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae)

Heliothis virescens (Fabricius) eggs were sampled to determine the effects of height and habitat type (soybean field vs. uncultivated vegetation) on rates of p arasitism by Trichogramma minutum Riley and T. pretiosum Riley. The potentially confounding effects of plant associations and host density and distribution were eliminated by sampling with laboratory-produced eggs deposited on cloths, rather than with eggs naturally deposited by endemic hosts.A 3-way contingency table analysis showed that parasitism (whether the egg cloths were parasitized or not) was significantly associated with height and habitat type in 1981, with higher rates of parasitism in the uncultivated habitat and at the greater height. Parasitism was independent of height and habitat in 1982. Rates of parasitism by the two Trichogramma species were not clearly associated with habitat type, but were associated with height. T. minutum consistently parasitized egg cloths positioned at greater heights than those parasitized by T. pretiosum. While the behavioral mechanisms responsible are unknown, this inter-specific difference could have important implications with regard to selecting the most suitable of these two Trichogramma species for a particular inundative release program.     

Nest defenses and egg recognition of yellow-bellied prinia against cuckoo parasitism

Parasites may, in multi-parasite systems, block the defenses of their hosts and thus thwart host recognition of parasites by frequency-dependent selection. Nest defenses as frontline may block or promote the subsequent stage of defenses such as egg recognition. We conducted comparative studies of the defensive strategies of a host of the Oriental cuckoo Cuculus optatus, the yellow-bellied prinia Prinia flaviventris, in mainland China with multiple species of cuckoos and in Taiwan with a single cuckoo species. Cuckoo hosts did not exhibit aggression toward cuckoos in the presence of multiple cuckoo species but showed strong aggressive defenses of hosts directed toward cuckoos in Taiwan. Furthermore, the cuckoo host in populations with a single cuckoo species was able to distinguish adults of its brood parasite, the Oriental cuckoo, from adult common cuckoos (Cuculus canorus). This represents the first case in which a cuckoo host has been shown to specifically distinguish Oriental cuckoo, from other Cuculus species. Hosts ejected eggs at a higher rate in a single cuckoo species system than in a multi-species cuckoo system, which supports the strategy facilitation hypothesis. Granularity analysis of variation in egg phenotype based on avian vision modeling supported the egg signature hypothesis in hosts because Taiwanese prinias increased consistency in the appearance of their eggs within individual hosts thus favoring efficient discrimination against cuckoo eggs. This study significantly improves our knowledge of intraspecific variation in antiparasitism behavior of hosts between single- and multi-cuckoo systems.     

环境激素氯氰菊酯对萼花臂尾轮虫繁殖的影响

以2 d种群增长率为指标研究了环境抗雄激素氯氰菊酯对萼花臂尾轮虫的急性毒性;以3 d种群动态参数(种群增长率、混交率、混交雌体受精率和携卵雌体/非携卵雌体)、7 d休眠卵产量和休眠卵孵化率为指标研究了低剂量氯氰菊酯(0.001～0.316 mg.L-1)对萼花臂尾轮虫繁殖的影响;以2 d种群参数分析了在氯氰菊酯中形成休眠卵孵化后的生长性能;以3 d种群参数为指标分析了母体暴露氯氰菊酯,对其后代繁殖的影响.结果表明氯氰菊酯浓度对数与种群增长率呈直线负相关.氯氰菊酯半数效应浓度(EC50)、最低可观察效应浓度(LOEC)和无可观察效应浓度(NOEC)分别为14.22、10和3.16mg.L-1;0.0316 mg.L-1氯氰菊酯组7 d休眠卵产量较对照组下降了41.23%,休眠卵孵化率亦较对照组显著下降;氯氰菊酯试验组中形成的休眠卵孵化后的种群增长率和混交率显著下降;萼花臂尾轮虫母体暴露0.316 mg.L-1氯氰菊酯其后代种群增长率比对照下降了15.96%.试验表明,萼花臂尾轮虫2 d种群增长率对氯氰菊酯较不敏感;低剂量氯氰菊酯可降低休眠卵产量、休眠卵孵化率及孵化后种群增长率,从而减少萼花臂尾轮虫后代早期对种群增长的贡献.     

Sex-biased investment in yolk androgens depends on female quality and laying order in zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata)

The Trivers–Willard hypothesis predicts sex biases in parental investment according to parental condition. In addition, parents may need to sex bias their investment if there is an asymmetry between the sexes in offspring fitness under different conditions. For studying maternal differential investment, egg resources are ideal subjects because they are self contained and allocated unequivocally by the female. Recent studies show that yolk androgens can be beneficial to offspring, so here we test for sex-biased investment with maternal investment of yolk testosterone (T) in zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata) eggs. From the Trivers–Willard hypothesis, we predicted females to invest more in male eggs in optimum circumstances (e.g. good-condition mother, early-laid egg), and more in female eggs under suboptimal conditions (e.g. poor-condition mother, late-laid egg). This latter prediction is also because in this species there is a female nestling disadvantage in poor conditions and we expected mothers to help compensate for this in female eggs. Indeed, we found more yolk T in female than male eggs. Moreover, in accordance with our predictions, yolk T in male eggs increased with maternal quality relative to female eggs, and decreased with laying order relative to female eggs. This supports our predictions for the different needs and value of male and female offspring in zebra finches. Our results support the idea that females may use yolk androgens as a tool to adaptively manipulate the inequalities between different nestlings.     

Preliminary attempts towards production of table eggs free from Salmonella enteritidis

The aim of this preliminary work is to reach to a cleaner production of intact shell-table eggs free from Salmonella enteritidis (SE) contamination, by application of pasteurization and dry heat. Three highly virulent strains of SE, previously reported to the World Animal Health Organization, were used in this study. The three strains acquired plasmid profiles similar to SE isolates reported in severe food illness of humans. The plasmid profiles of the three SE strains were: strain 1 (14.1 kb), strain 2 (14.1 and ≈50.0 kb), and strain 3 (1.8, 14.1, and ≈50.0 kb).Each of the three SE strains grown up to 10 h (stationary phase) and adjusted to the same light transmission of 12% at a wavelength of 540 nm, was homogenized with yolk of eggs to form three individual inocula. Strain 1 inoculum to eggs resulted in initial SE count/ml of egg content equivalent to 1.80×10¹⁹ colony forming unit (cfu); however, strain 2 inoculum resulted in 2.3×10¹⁹ cfu, and strain 3 inoculum resulted in 2.20×10¹⁹ cfu (P>0.05). Treatment of inoculated intact shell eggs in a hot water bath at 57°C for 25 min, followed by application of hot air at 55°C for another 57 min resulted in the highest reduction in SE count/ml of the egg content for strain 1 (average 33.33 cfu), followed by strain 2 (average of 0.73×10⁴ cfu), and strain 3 (average of 1.60×10⁴ cfu). All counts after treatment were significantly less than the initial count before treatment (P<0.05).Decreasing the density of the SE in the three inocula by about 13 logs to be 1.80×10⁶ cfu/ml of egg content for strain 1, 2.34×10⁶ for strain 2, and 2.20×10⁶ for strain 3 (P>0.05) and applying the same pasteurization and dry heat treatment on inoculated eggs resulted in complete absence of viability in the three strains, averaging zero cfu/ml of egg content.The pasteurization and dry heat treatment of intact shell-table eggs results in significant reduction of the high initial count of SE strains, regardless of their plasmid profile or density of contamination. The production of table eggs completely clean of SE could be obtained by the same treatment when the initial contamination is low (around 10⁶ cfu/ml of egg content).     

Non-transferable signals on ant queen eggs

How biological systems resolve internal conflicts is a major evolutionary question. Social insect workers cooperate but also pursue individual interests, such as laying male eggs. The rewards of this individual selfishness can be reduced by policing, such as by killing worker-laid eggs. However, selfish individuals may evade policing. What factors prevent individuals from being able to evade policing? In the ant Pachycondyla inversa, workers kill (police) worker-laid eggs. Because the colony keeps eggs in piles and worker-laid and queen-laid eggs are chemically distinct, worker-laid eggs might become more acceptable once placed in the egg pile by odour transfer from touching queen-laid eggs. Here, we show that such “cue scrambling” does not occur. Worker-laid eggs that were sandwiched between three queen-laid eggs for 45 min were not more acceptable in a policing bioassay than control worker-laid eggs. Chemical analyses also showed that the surface hydrocarbon profile of these eggs was unchanged. Policing, therefore, is stable against this potential cheating mechanism probably because queen-laid eggs are made chemically distinct using chemicals, that are not easily transferred by physical contact.     

Host genotype and age have no effect on rejection of parasitic eggs

Egg rejection belongs to a widely used host tactic to prevent the costs incurred by avian brood parasitism. However, the genetic basis of this behaviour and the effect of host age on the probability of rejecting the parasitic egg remain largely unknown. Here, we used a set of 15 polymorphic microsatellite loci, including a previously detected candidate locus (Ase64), to link genotypes of female great reed warblers (Acrocephalus arundinaceus), a known rejecter, with their egg rejection responses in two host populations. We also tested whether host female age, as a measure of the experience with own eggs, plays a role in rejection of common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) eggs. We failed to find any consistent association of egg rejection responses with host female genotypes or age. It seems that host decisions on egg rejection show high levels of phenotypic plasticity and are likely to depend on the spatiotemporal variation in the parasitism pressure. Future studies exploring the repeatability of host responses towards parasitic eggs and the role of host individual experience with parasitic eggs would greatly improve our understanding of the variations in host behaviours considering the persistence of brood parasitism in host populations with rejecter phenotypes.     

Body size phenotypes are heritable and mediate fecundity but not fitness in the lepidopteran frugivore Cydia pomonella

The inheritance and functional roles of quantitative traits are central concerns of evolutionary ecology. We report two sets of experiments that investigated the heritability and reproductive consequences of body size phenotypes in a globally distributed lepidopteran frugivore, Cydia pomonella (L.). In our first set of experiments, we tested the hypotheses that (1) body size is heritable and (2) parental body size mediates egg production and offspring survival. Midparent–offspring regression analyses revealed that body mass is highly heritable for females and moderately heritable for males. The contribution of fathers to estimates of additive genetic variance was slightly greater than for mothers. Egg production increased with mean parental size, but offspring survival rates were equivalent. Based on this result, we tested two additional hypotheses in a second set of experiments: (3) male size moderates female egg production and egg fertility and (4) egg production, egg fertility, and offspring survival rate are influenced by female mating opportunities. Females paired with large males produced more eggs and a higher proportion of fertile eggs than females paired with small males. Females with multiple mating opportunities produced more fertile eggs than females paired with a single male. However, egg production and offspring survival rates were unaffected by the number of mating opportunities. Our experiments demonstrate that body mass is heritable in C. pomonella and that size phenotypes may mediate fecundity but not fitness. We conclude that male size can influence egg production and fertility, but female mate choice also plays a role in determining egg fertility.     

The role of tending ants in host plant selection and egg parasitism of two facultative myrmecophilous butterflies

Ovipositing adult females of myrmecophilous lycaenids are expected to select plants based on ant presence in order to maximize the survivorship of immature stages. Usually, larvae feed ants with honey-like solutions and, in turn, ants ward off parasitoids. Nonetheless, a rarely investigated approach is whether ant partners can also extend their protective behavior towards lycaenids eggs. Here, we investigated the ant-related oviposition pattern of Allosmaitia strophius and Rekoa marius; then, we compared egg parasitism according to the presence of ants. Lycaenid oviposition and egg parasitism (in percent) were experimentally compared in ant-present and ant-excluded treatments. The study plant, Heteropterys byrsonimifolia, is an extrafloral nectaried shrub which supports several ant species. We sampled 280 eggs, of which 39.65 % belonged to A. strophius and 60.35 % to R. marius. Both lycaenids eggs were significantly more abundant on branches with ants, especially those with Camponotus crassus and Camponotus blandus, two ant species known to attend to lycaenids. A. strophius and R. marius parasitism was 4.5- and 2.4-fold higher, respectively, in ant-present treatments, but the results were not statistically significant. Our study shows that ant-mediated host plant selection in lycaenids might be much more widespread than previously thought, and not restricted to obligate myrmecophilous species. Tending ants may be inefficient bodyguards of lycaenid eggs, because unlike larvae which release sugared liquids, eggs do not offer obvious rewards to ants. Ants can ward off parasitoids of larvae, as observed elsewhere, but our findings show that positive ant–lycaenid interactions are conditional and depend on immature ontogeny.     

Does contrast between eggshell ground and spot coloration affect egg rejection?

Obligate avian brood parasitic species impose the costs of incubating foreign eggs and raising young upon their unrelated hosts. The most common host defence is the rejection of parasitic eggs from the nest. Both egg colours and spot patterns influence egg rejection decisions in many host species, yet no studies have explicitly examined the role of variation in spot coloration. We studied the American robin Turdus migratorius, a blue-green unspotted egg-laying host of the brown-headed cowbird Molothrus ater, a brood parasite that lays non-mimetic spotted eggs. We examined host responses to model eggs with variable spot coloration against a constant robin-mimetic ground colour to identify patterns of rejection associated with perceived contrast between spot and ground colours. By using avian visual modelling, we found that robins were more likely to reject eggs whose spots had greater chromatic (hue) but not achromatic (brightness) contrast. Therefore, egg rejection decision rules in the American robin may depend on the colour contrast between parasite eggshell spot and host ground coloration. Our study also suggests that egg recognition in relation to spot coloration, like ground colour recognition, is tuned to the natural variation of avian eggshell spot colours but not to unnatural spot colours.     

Phylogeny of cooperatively breeding cuckoos (Cuculidae,Crotophaginae) based on mitochondrial gene sequences

The Crotophaginae is a subfamily of New World cuckoos comprising the monotypic genus Guira and three ani species (Crotophaga). All exhibit a rare form of cooperative breeding known as plural female joint-nesting, whereby two or more females lay eggs in a single nest. I reconstructed the phylogeny of Crotophaginae using the mitochondrial genes cytochrome oxidase I, II, and III, ATPase 6 and 8, and cytochrome b. The subfamily was monophyletic, implying a single origin of cooperative breeding in New World cuckoos. Crotophaga was also monophyletic with Guira as its sister taxon. Within Crotophaga, the smooth-billed (C. ani) and groove-billed (C. sulcirostris) anis formed the internal clade with the greater ani (C. major) basal to this pair. This phylogeny is consistent with differences in reproductive patterns and social organization exhibited by crotophagine cuckoos, and will serve as a framework for future study of the evolution of cooperative breeding in this subfamily.     

Aphid egg protection by ants: a novel aspect of the mutualism between the tree-feeding aphid Stomaphis hirukawai and its attendant ant Lasius productus

Aphids often form mutualistic associations with ants, in which the aphids provide the ants with honeydew and the ants defend the aphids from predators. In this paper, we report aphid egg protection by ants as a novel aspect of the deeply interdependent relationship between a tree-feeding aphid and its attendant ant. The ant Lasius productus harbours oviparous females, males, and eggs of the hinoki cypress-feeding aphid Stomaphis hirukawai in its nests in winter. We investigated the behaviour of ants kept with aphid eggs in petri dishes to examine whether the ants recognise the aphid eggs and tend them or only provide a refuge for the aphids. Workers carried almost all of the aphid eggs into the nest within 24 h. The ants indiscriminately tended aphid eggs collected from their own colonies and those from other ant colonies. The ants cleaned the eggs and piled them up in the nest, and egg tending by ants dramatically increased aphid egg survival rates. Starving the ants showed no significant effect on aphid egg survivorship. Without ants, aphid eggs were rapidly killed by fungi. These results suggested that grooming by the ants protected the aphid eggs, at least, against pathogenic fungi. This hygienic service afforded by the ants seems indispensable for egg survival of these aphids in an environment rich in potentially pathogenic microorganisms.Electronic supplementary material  Supplementary material is available for this article at and is accessible for authorized users.     

北京市市售鸡蛋和鸭蛋中全氟化合物的污染水平研究

研究了北京市市售蛋类中全氟化合物的污染水平.分别对14个主要蛋类批发市场中59个摊位的鸡蛋和鸭蛋进行了样品采集,采用高效液相色谱-串联质谱法(HPLC-MS/MS)对17种全氟化合物(11种全氟羧酸盐、3种全氟磺酸盐、1种全氟磺酰胺和2种氟化调聚酸)进行了系统性分析.结果表明北京市市售鸡蛋和鸭蛋样品中均存在一定浓度的全氟化合物污染,其中鸡蛋中共检出9种全氟化合物,以全氟壬酸(PFNA)、全氟庚酸(PFHpA)和全氟辛酸(PFOA)为主,平均含量分别为0.105、0.073和0.069 ng·g-1;鸭蛋中共检出10种全氟化合物,以全氟辛烷磺酸(PFOS)和PFOA为主,平均含量分别为0.378ng·g-1和0.296 ng·g-1.鸡蛋和鸭蛋中均未检出全氟戊酸(PFPeA)、全氟十四酸(PFTA)、全氟丁烷磺酸(PFBS)和8:2饱和调聚酸(FOEA).鸭蛋中总PFCs约是鸡蛋的3.4倍.鸡蛋中PFNA和PFHpA之间(r=0.954)以及鸭蛋中全氟十一酸(PFUnDA)和全氟十三酸(PFTrDA)之间(r=0.915)均存在较强的正相关性.对人体健康风险评价结果显示,北京市市售鸡蛋和鸭蛋中PFOS和PFOA污染水平不会对北京市居民产生即时危害.     

Egyptian blue — Cuprorivaite a window to ancient Egyptian technology

Egyptian Blue, a multicomponent synthetic blue pigment has been recorded in ancient Egypt since the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom (2600–2480 B.C.). The pigment consisting of cuprorivaite (CaCuSi₄O₁₀) with variable amounts of wollastonite (CaSiO₃), Cu-rich glass and cuprite (Cu₃O) or tenorite (CuO) was prepared by melting the copper-rich ingredient with lime and desert sand. Low melting temperatures (below 742 °C) were achieved by addition of flux-like plant ashes. The high quality of the pigments collected from monuments of the Fifth Dynasty (2480–2320 B.C.) may indicate that the first manufacture was in early dynastic or perhaps predynastic eras. During the reign of Thutmosis III (18th Dynasty, 1490–1436 B.C.) probably bronze filings were first applied as starting material, thus indicating a technological innovation. This new method was employed till the Roman times.     

Parental conflict and blue egg coloration in a seabird

When both parents provide offspring care, equal sharing of costly parental duties may enhance reproductive success. This is crucial for longlived species, where increased parental effort in current reproduction profoundly affects future reproduction. Indication of reproductive value or willingness to invest in reproduction may promote matching responses by mates, thus reducing the conflict over care. In birds with biparental care, blue-green eggshell color may function as a signal of reproductive value that affects parental effort, as predicted by the signaling hypothesis of blue-green eggshell coloration. However, this hypothesis has not been explored during incubation, when the potential stimulus of egg color is present, and has been little studied in longlived birds. We experimentally studied if egg color affected incubation patterns in the blue-footed booby, a longlived species with biparental care and blue eggs. We exchanged fresh eggs between nests of the same laying date and recorded parental incubation effort on the following 4 days. Although egg color did not affect male effort, original eggshell color was correlated with pair matching in incubation. Exchanged eggshell color did not affect incubation patterns. This suggests that biliverdin-based egg coloration reflects female quality features that are associated with pair incubation effort or that blue-footed boobies mate assortatively high-quality pairs incubating more colorful clutches. An intriguing possibility is that egg coloration facilitates an equal sharing of incubation, the signal being functional only during a short period close to laying. Results also suggest that indication of reproductive value reduces the conflict over care.     

Decision rules for egg recognition are related to functional roles and chemical cues in the queenless ant Dinoponera quadriceps

The capacity to distinguish colony members from strangers is a key component in social life. In social insects, this extends to the brood and involves discrimination of queen eggs. Chemical substances communicate colony affiliation for both adults and brood; thus, in theory, all colony members should be able to recognize fellow nestmates. In this study, we investigate the ability of Dinoponera quadriceps workers to discriminate nestmate and non-nestmate eggs based on cuticular hydrocarbon composition. We analyzed whether cuticular hydrocarbons present on the eggs provide cues of discrimination. The results show that egg recognition in D. quadriceps is related to both age and the functional role of workers. Brood care workers were able to distinguish nestmate from non-nestmate eggs, while callow and forager workers were unable to do so. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Did the Romans introduce the Egyptian mongoose (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Herpestes ichneumon</Emphasis>) into the Iberian Peninsula?

New finds of bones of the Egyptian Mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon), one from Portugal and one from Spain, were directly ¹⁴C dated to the first century AD. While the Portuguese specimen was found without connection to the Chalcolithic occupation of the Pedra Furada cave where it was recovered, the Spanish find, collected in the city of Mérida, comes from a ritual pit that also contained three human and 40 dog burials. The finds reported here show that the Egyptian mongoose, contrary to the traditional and predominant view, did not first arrive in the Iberian Peninsula during the Muslim occupation of Iberia. Instead, our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the species was first introduced by the Romans, or at least sometime during the Roman occupation of Hispania. Therefore, radiocarbon dating of new archaeological finds of bones of the Egyptian Mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) in the Iberian Peninsula push back the confirmed presence of the species in the region by approximately eight centuries, as the previously oldest dated record is from the ninth century. With these new dates, there are now a total of four ¹⁴C dated specimens of Egyptian mongooses from the Iberian Peninsula, and all of these dates fall within the last 2000 years. This offers support for the hypothesis that the presence of the species in Iberia is due to historical introductions and is at odds with a scenario of natural sweepstake dispersal across the Straits of Gibraltar in the Late Pleistocene (126,000–11,700 years ago), recently proposed based on genetic data.     

Identification and characterization of the chromium（Ⅵ） responding protein from a newly isolated Ochrobactrum anthropi CTS-325

A Gram-negative, chromium(VI) tolerant and reductive strain CTS-325, isolated from a Chinese chromate plant, was identified as Ochrobactrum anthropi based on its biochemical properties and 16S rDNA sequence analysis. It was able to tolerate up to 10 mmol/L Cr(VI) and completely reduce 1 mmol/L Cr(VI) to Cr(III) within 48 h. When the strain CTS-325 was induced with Cr(VI), a protein increased significantly in the whole cell proteins. Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis revealed that this protein was a superoxide dismutase (SOD) homology. The measured superoxide dismutase activity was 2694 U/mg after three steps of purification. The SOD catalyzes the dismutation of the superoxide anion (O₂^·−) into hydrogen peroxide and molecular oxygen. This protein is considered to be one of the most important anti-oxidative enzymes for O. anthropi as it allows the bacterium to survive high oxygen stress environments, such as the environment produced during the reduction process of Cr(VI).     

Oviposition markers in Callosobruchus maculatus F. and Callosobruchus rhodesianus pic. (coleoptera,bruchidae): Assymmetry of interspecific responses

The bean weevils Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) and C. rhodesianus (Pic.) both laid fewer eggs on previously infested adzuki beans than on fresh beans, even after eggs were removed. A variety of experimental treatments demonstrated the existence of an oviposition marker with ether soluble components. Callosobruchus rhodesianus was inhibited from ovipositing by the C. maculatus marker, but not vice versa.