Smoldering combustion of dust layer on hot surface

The critical temperature as well as the critical flux for ignition of a dust layer of cornflour and a mixture of wheatflour and cornflour (80% wheatflour+20% cornflour) on a hot plate have been determined. The moulded sample was cylindrical in shape and of different heights and diameters. The particle size of dusts ranged between 63 μm to 150 μm. The temperature–time histories for self-heating without ignition and with ignition are offered, showing the critical boundaries between them. Also the times to ignition for each dust, showing the effect of sample size on their values, are determined. Certain experimental correlations which relate to times to ignition, as well as the critical temperature for ignition and thermal and geometrical dimensions of sample are presented.     

A numerical model for the prediction of the minimum ignition temperature of dust clouds

This paper presents a numerical model for the prediction of the minimum ignition temperature (MIT) of dust clouds. First, a physical model is developed for the dust cloud ignition in the Godbert-Greenwald furnace. A numerical approach is then applied for the MIT prediction based on the physical model. The model considers heat transfer between the air and dust particles, the dust particle reaction kinetics, and the residence times of dust clouds in the furnace. In general, for the 13 dusts studied, the calculated MIT data are in agreement with the experimental values. There is also great accordance between the experimental and numerical MIT variation trends against particle size. Two different ignition modes are discovered. The first one consists in ignition near the furnace wall for bigger particles characterized by rather short residence times. In the second mode, the ignition starts from the center of the furnace by self-heating of the dust cloud for smaller particles with longer residence times. For magnesium, as dust concentration increases, the lowest ignition temperature of the dust cloud IT(conc) decreases first, then transits to increase at a certain point. The transition happens at different dust concentrations for different particle sizes. Moreover, the MIT of the magnesium dust cloud generally increases as particle size increases, but the increasing trend stagnates within a certain medium particle size range.     

Influence of different ignition delay times on the pressure rise rate in hybrid mixture explosions in the 20-L sphere

For the development of a standardized method for measuring the explosion safety characteristics of combustible hybrid dust/vapor mixtures, the influence of the ignition delay time needs to be investigated. The ignition delay time, defined as the time between the injection of dust and the activation of the ignition source, is related to the turbulence of the mixture and thus to the pressure rise rate. The ignition source for pure vapors, however, has to be activated in a quiescent atmosphere according to the standards. Nevertheless, when measuring the explosion safety characteristics of hybrid mixtures, it is important that the dust be in suspension around the igniter. Like pure dust/air mixtures, hybrid dust/vapor/air mixtures need to be ignited in a turbulent atmosphere to keep the dust in suspension.This work will therefore investigate the influence of ignition delay times on the severity of hybrid explosions. It was generally found that at shorter ignition delay times, (dp/dt)_ex increased due to higher turbulence and decreases as the dust sinks to the bottom of the 20 L-sphere. This effect is more pronounced for hybrid mixtures with higher vapor content compared to dust content.     

辐射热流条件下多层电缆着火的数值模拟

通过CFD计算软件对锥形量热燃烧实验条件下的多层电缆着火性能进行数值模拟计算,对比相应CONE电缆燃烧实验结果,其计算结果表明所建立的电缆模型所得计算结果能够较好预测电缆着火时间。在此基础上,对护套层、绝缘层厚度、线芯层直径等参数对着火时间的影响进行了分析,发现护套层厚度对着火时间影响最大,线芯层对着火时间影响较小;当护套层及绝缘层厚度达到一定数值之后,电缆着火时间将不再发生变化。另外,因为电缆由多层热特性各异的材料组成,不能简单的划分为热薄材料或者热厚材料,但就所模拟电缆而言,其着火时间在不同的热辐射强度下分别表现出与热薄材料或者热厚材料相似的变化规律。     

常用高分子装饰材料的燃烧特性

利用先进的锥型量热计研究了五种常用的高分子装饰材料在暴露于不同辐射热通量条件下的燃烧性能,以及用氧指数测定仪测量了这些材料的氧指数,并将这两种方法的实验结果进行了对比。     

敏感条件对粉尘云最小点火能的影响规律分析

为使粉尘云最小点火能实验测量更准确,从多个方面分析影响最小点火能的测量因素,并根据粉尘云状态、粉尘颗粒固有性质、点火电路等几个方面对影响粉尘云最小点火能的因素,即敏感条件进行了分类。在实验测量中,具体归纳为:粉尘浓度、粉尘湿度、粉尘粒度及其分布、粉尘挥发份含量、粉尘温度(环境温度)、粉尘云的湍流度、粉尘分散质量、粉尘云初始压力、环境氧浓度、电极材料、电极直径和电极末端曲率、电极间距、电火花持续时间、点火延迟时间、电火花能量密度、火花触发电路、可燃气体影响、实验次数等18个影响因素。重点分析了敏感条件对最小点火能的影响规律,从粉尘云点火机理和过程出发,着重分析一些敏感条件对最小点火能影响的内在原因和实质。     

Prediction of minimum ignition energy of aerosols using flame kernel modeling combined with flame front propagation theory

Flammable aerosols have created many fire and explosion hazards in the process industry, but the flammability of aerosols has not been fully understood. The minimum ignition energy has been widely used as an indicator for flammability of combustible mixtures, but the amount of experimental data on the minimum ignition energy of aerosols is very limited. In this work, the minimum ignition energy of tetralin aerosols is predicted using an integrated model. The model applies the flame front propagation theory in aerosol systems to the growth of the flame kernel, which was created during the spark discharge in the ignition process. The aerosol minimum ignition energy was defined as the minimum level of energy in the initial flame kernel to maintain the kernel temperature above the minimum ignition temperature of 1073 K specific for tetralin aerosols during the kernel growth. The minimum ignition energy obtained in the model is influenced by the fuel-air equivalence ratio and the size of the aerosol droplets. For tetralin aerosols of 40 μm diameter, E_min decreases significantly from 0.32 mJ to 4.3 × 10 e⁻³ mJ when the equivalence ratio rises from 0.57 to 1.0. For tetralin aerosols of 0.57 equivalence ratio, E_min increases from as 0.09 mJ to 0.32 mJ when the droplet diameter rises from 10 μm to 60 μm. The trends are in agreement with previous experimental observations. The method used in current work has the potential to prediction of the minimum ignition energy of aerosol.     

The effects of phosphorus-free inhibitors on the ignition of lycopodium dust

The minimum ignition temperature of dust suspension (MIT) and the hot surface ignition temperature of the dust layer (LIT) are essential safety parameters for the process industry. However, the knowledge of the ignition behavior when solid mixtures of flammable fuels and phosphorous-free inhibitors are considered is still scarce and further experimental and theoretical analyses are requested. In this work, the ignition temperature of phosphorous-free inhibitors (coal fly ash and calcium carbonate) mixed with lycopodium dust have been studied in terms of LIT analysis (hot plate thickness: 5 mm, 12.5 mm and 15 mm), and by the Godbert-Greenwald test for the MIT. Both coal fly ash and calcium carbonate have been tested at different concentrations and particle sizes.Results show that the effects of the inhibitor can be counter-productive when layer ignition temperature is considered even if the minimum ignition temperature of the dust suspension shows a positive effect from the safety point of view. This behavior has been analyzed in the terms of thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the mixture, by using Maxwell's equation for two-phase solid mixtures. Standard empirical correlations for the ignition temperature of solid mixtures have been also tested, showing their weakness in reproducing mixture behavior.     

立体结构障碍物对甲烷预混火焰传播影响的研究

使用自行设计的火焰加速试验系统,研究了3种立体结构障碍物对管道内预混火焰传播速度和超压的影响。选用长方体、正四棱柱和圆柱,其阻塞比均为40%。结果表明,管道内障碍物对火焰传播的初始阶段起阻碍作用,当火焰越过障碍物后,障碍物加速火焰传播过程。有障碍物时管道内最大火焰传播速度和峰值超压比无障碍物时要大。随着点火距离的增大,管道中最大火焰传播速度和超压先变大后减小。当障碍物位于约6倍管径处时,对管道中火焰传播速度和超压影响最大。点火距离的改变对火焰传播速度的影响大于对管道内超压的影响。     

戊唑醇粉尘最小点火能试验研究

采用1.2 L哈特曼管爆炸装置分别对粒径小于54μm、74μm、150μm及大于150μm的戊唑醇粉尘进行测试。针对戊唑醇粉尘浓度及粒径范围对其最小点火能的影响,分别进行单因素试验,并对其危险性进行分级。结果表明,保持粒径小于150μm,环境温度为20℃,喷粉压力为0.7 MPa,在质量浓度100~1 300 g/m~3之间,戊唑醇粉尘的最佳敏感质量浓度ρ_m为983.71 g/m~3,此时的最小点火能为404.74 mJ。保持戊唑醇粉尘质量浓度为900 g/m~3,环境温度为20℃,喷粉压力为0.7 MPa不变,粒径小于54μm、74μm、150μm及大于150μm的戊唑醇粉尘的最小点火能分别为10 mJ、100 mJ、400 mJ和1 000 mJ以上。因此,判定戊唑醇粉尘最小点火能属于M2级,为特别着火敏感性。     

Numerical study on the spontaneous ignition of pressurized hydrogen during its sudden release into the tube with varying lengths and diameters

Fuel cell vehicles (FCV) and other hydrogen systems with pressurized hydrogen has a safety hazard of spontaneous ignition during its sudden release into the tube. Tube parameter is a key factor affecting the spontaneous ignition of pressurized hydrogen. In this paper, a numerical study on the spontaneous ignition of pressurized hydrogen during its sudden release into the tube with varying lengths and diameters is conducted. The models of Large Eddy Simulation (LES), Eddy Dissipation Concept (EDC), Renormalization Group (RNG), 10-step like opening process of burst disk and 18-step detailed hydrogen combustion mechanism are employed. 6 cases are simulated based on the previous experiments. Numerical results show that the possibility of spontaneous ignition of pressurized hydrogen increases inside the longer and thinner tubes, which agrees with the experimental results. The increasing of tube length has little influence on the shock wave formation and propagation inside the tube. However, there exists critical tube lengths for the generation of Mach disk and the normal shock wave: the maximum and minimum distances for the generation of the Mach disk in 10 mm diameter tube are 7.8 and 6.7 mm, respectively. As for the normal shock wave, these critical values are 22.1 and 19.4 mm, respectively. In addition, the formation times and initial positions of Mach disk and normal shock wave are delayed inside the thicker tube. Due to the shock-affected time increases with the increasing of tube length, the temperature could rise to the critical ignition temperature and triggers the spontaneous ignition due to the sufficient tube length even though the less hydrogen/air mixture and the contact surface with lower temperature is produced inside the thicker tube. Finally, a simple time scale analysis is conducted.     

Measurement of charge transfer during filling and emptying FIBC

Filling and emptying normal FIBC (flexible intermediate bulk containers) in hazardous areas represents a high electrostatic ignition hazard. Manufacturers of FIBC have therefore designed different measures to reduce the ignition risks from static electricity. Depending on the measures applied FIBC are categorized into types A, B, C and D. End of 2005 a new international standard for testing type D FIBC has been published. Type D FIBC have now to be certified according to this standard. Since this standard requires comprehensive ignition testing on a test rig especially designed for this purpose, industry is looking for a simpler test method, which can be used for the development of new FIBC fabric and in production quality control. In the present paper it is attempted to apply the method of charge transfer measurement to assess the ignition probability of static discharged from FIBC during filling and emptying and to correlate the results with the ignition tests performed on the standard test rig.     

Initiation of strong reactive shocks and detonation by traveling ignition pulses

Experimental studies of detonation initiation by external stimulation of exothermic reactions closely behind a propagating shock wave (SW) are reported. Gaseous and heterogeneous fuel–air mixtures have been studied. Spatially distributed electric dischargers with properly tuned triggering times are shown to provide very short distances for shock-to-detonation transition in smooth-walled tubes. The energy of each individual discharger was shown to be smaller than the critical energy required for direct detonation initiation by a single discharger. The total energy of the dischargers appeared to be lower than the critical energy of direct detonation initiation. Available experiments with deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) in tubes with regular or irregular obstacles are also treated as detonation initiation by a traveling ignition source. In this case, instead of external stimulation of chemical activity, the localized obstacle-induced autoignition of shock-compressed gas occurs which can be closely coupled with the propagating SW. Two possible DDT scenarios are identified, namely, ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ DDT. In case the ignition timing at obstacles is closely coupled with the SW, favorable conditions for ‘fast’ DDT can occur. Otherwise, the SW decouples from the ignition pulses and ‘slow’ DDT can occur at a later stage due to cumulating of flame-induced pressure waves and ‘explosion in the explosion’ phenomenon.     

Numerical studies on minimum ignition energies in methane/air and iso-octane/air mixtures

In this study, the dependence of minimum ignition energies (MIE) on ignition geometry, ignition source radius and mixture composition is investigated numerically for methane/air and iso-octane/air mixtures. Methane and iso-octane are both important hydrocarbon fuels, but differ strongly with respect to their Lewis numbers. Lean iso-octane air mixtures have particularly large Lewis numbers. The results show that within the flammability limits, the MIE for both mixtures stays almost constant, and increases rapidly at the limits. The MIEs for both fuels are also similar within the flammability limits. Furthermore, the MIEs of iso-octane/air mixtures with a small spherical ignition source increase rapidly for lean mixtures. Here the Lewis number is above unity, and thus, the flame may quench because of flame curvature effects. The observations show a distinct difference between ignition and flame propagation for iso-octane. The minimum energy required for initiating a successful flame propagation can be considerably higher than that required for initiating an ignition in the ignition volume. For iso-octane with a small spherical ignition source, this effect was observed at all equivalence ratios. For iso-octane with cylindrical ignition sources, the phenomenon appeared at lower equivalence ratios only, where the mixture's Lewis number is large. For methane fuel, the effect was negligible. The results highlight the significance of molecular transport properties on the decision whether or not an ignitable mixture can evolve into a propagating flame.     

Comparative study on standardized ignition sources used for explosion testing

For the determination of safety characteristics of gases, vapors and dusts different types of ignition sources are used in international standards and guidelines. The paper presents test results of a comparative calorimetric and visual study between four different types of ignition sources. The ignition procedures were analyzed visually with a high-speed camera and electric recordings. In addition to that, the influence of the electrode-orientation, -distance as well as ignition energy on the reproducibility of the exploding wire igniter was tested.The exploding wire is already in use for standardized determination of safety characteristics of gases, first tests on the suitability of the exploding wire igniter for dust testing have been carried out but are not standardized yet. Using the exploding wire, the ignition energy can be varied from 2 J to 10 000 J (2 x 5000 J) and thus it could be used for gases, vapors, dusts and hybrid mixtures. Moreover it can be used at high initial pressures and it is the only ignition source with an easily measurable ignition energy release. Furthermore, it does not introduce another chemical reaction into the system.Finally, a proposal for a standard ignition source for explosion tests on hybrid mixtures is derived from the test results.     

石化装置泄漏事故点火源及点火概率的确定

简要综述石化企业常见点火源的分类及点火概率的确定方法。首先介绍点火源的常见分类方式,通过事件树展示泄漏发生后立即点火和延迟点火造成的不同事故后果;其次总结目前国内外确定点火概率的两种方法,即基于事故统计的点火概率以及基于点火源分类和统计的方法。在基于事故统计的点火概率中,给出国外在易燃液体运输、井喷、储罐破裂、管道运输等行业发生泄漏事故后的点火概率。在基于点火源分类及统计的点火概率计算中,给出TNO、HSE推荐的点火概率计算方法。同时对国内的研究情况进行了总结,给出已发表的点火概率计算方法。最后简要介绍目前国内关于点火过程的试验研究。针对国内工厂实际情况确定不同点火源的点火概率的工作亟待开展。     

Validation of a new formula for predicting the lower flammability limit of hybrid mixtures

A correlation of the lower flammability limit for hybrid mixtures was recently proposed by us. The experimental conditions including ignition energy and turbulence which play a primary role in a gas or dust explosion were at fixed values. The sensitivity of such experimental conditions to the accuracy of the proposed formula was not thoroughly discussed in the previous work. Therefore, this work studied the effect of varying the ignition energy and turbulence intensity to the formula proposed in our previous paper. For ignition energy effect, results from methane/niacin mixture demonstrated that the MEC and LFL will not be affected by changing ignition energy. There is no distinguishable difference among gas explosion index (K_G) and dust explosion index (K_St) derived from tests with every ignition energy (2.5 kJ, 5 kJ and 10 kJ) in a 36 L vessel. The proposed formula is independent of ignition energy. For turbulence effect, the proposed formula can have a good prediction of the explosion and non-explosion zone if the ignition delay time is within a certain range. The formula prediction is good as the ignition delay time increases up to 100 ms in this work. Propane/niacin and propane/cornstarch mixtures are also tested to validate the proposed formula. It has been confirmed that the proposed formula predicts the explosion and non-explosion zone boundary of such mixtures.     

基于CONE和MCC的典型电缆燃烧性能研究

采用锥形量热仪和微燃烧量热仪对四类不同护套材料的八种电缆样品进行燃烧性能分析,研究结果表明：电缆燃烧热释放过程不仅与护套、绝缘的材料密切相关,也与电缆结构密不可分;对于护套材料相同而大小或结构不同的电缆点燃时间和到达第一个峰值的时间以及第一个峰值最大热释放速率基本一致;聚烯烃无机阻燃材料电缆能够有效降低热释放速率峰值,CO2、CO释放量也明显低于橡胶电缆、普通PVC电缆和阻燃PVC电缆;微燃烧量热仪和锥形量热仪实验数据存在一定的相关性,微燃烧量热仪实验数据可以对电缆锥形量热仪实验的第一燃烧阶段燃烧行为进行预测。     

Nex-Hys: minimum ignition temperature of hybrid mixtures

Although the minimum ignition temperature is an important safety characteristic and of practical relevance in industrial processes, actually only standard operation procedures are available for pure substances and single-phase values. Nevertheless, combinations of substances or mixtures are used in industrial processes and up to now it is not possible to provide a standardised minimum ignition temperature and in consequence to design a process safely with regard to the substances used.In order to get minimum ignition temperatures for frequently used hybrid mixtures, first, the minimum ignition temperatures and ignition frequencies were determined in the modified Godbert-Greenwald furnace for two single phase solids and a liquid substance. Second, minimum ignition temperatures and ignition frequencies were determined for several combinations as hybrid mixture of dust and liquid.In parallel to the determination of ignition temperatures a new camera and computer system to differentiate ignition from non-ignition is developed. First results are promising that such a system could be much less operator depended.By a high number of repetitions to classify regions of ignition the base is laid to decide about a new procedure for a hybrid standard and updating existing ones, too. This is one of the necessary aims to be reached in the Nex-Hys project.A noticeable decrease of minimum ignition temperatures below the MIT of the pure solids was observed for the one hybrid mixture tested, yet. Furthermore more widely dispersed area of ignition is shown. In accordance to previously findings, the results demonstrate a strong relationship between likelihood of explosion and amount of added solvent. In consequence the hybrid mixture is characterized by a lower minimum ignition temperature than the single dust.     

Stratified Propane–Air Explosions in a Duct Vented Geometry: Effect of Concentration,Ignition and Injection Position

Duct vented geometries are a common feature in modern industrial installations where a vessel is protected from internal explosion pressures, and where the explosion products need to be directed away from sensitive areas. In this research, stratified propane–air concentrations have been investigated using a vented vessel connected to a vent pipe. Concentration, injection position and ignition position were varied and comparisons made with homogeneous tests at the same ‘global concentration’ for each condition. The maximum pressures produced by the worst case stratified mixture were only about a quarter of the maximum produced by the worst case homogeneous mixtures. However, for lean concentrations, stratified mixtures were shown to produce consistently greater pressures than the equivalent homogeneous case, irrespective of ignition position. In addition, results are presented which demonstrate that end ignition appears to be more severe than central ignition, contrary to what is reported in literature.