Monitoring of Organochlorine Pesticide Residues in Summer and Winter Vegetables from Agra, India – A case study

Analysis of summer and winter vegetable samples during 2002–2003 for pesticidal contamination was carried out on Gas Chromatograph-Electron Capture Detector with capillary columns. The contamination levels of winter vegetables (average concentration of 4.57, 6.80 and 5.47 ppb respectively for Lindane, Endosulphan and DDT) were found to be slightly higher than the summer vegetables (average concentration of 4.47, 3.14 and 2.82 ppb respectively for Lindane, Endosulphan and DDT). The concentration of these organochlorine pesticides in summer and winter vegetables were well below the established tolerances but continuous consumption of such vegetables even with moderate contamination level can accumulate in the receptor's body and may lead to chronic effects that could be fatal.     

Monitoring of Seasonal Vegetables for Pesticide Residues

Market samples (60) of six seasonal vegetables were monitoredduring 1996–1997 to determine the magnitude of pesticidalcontamination. The estimation of insecticide residuesrepresenting four major chemical groups i.e. organochlorine,organophosphorous, synthetic pyrethroid and carbamate, was doneby adopting a multiresidue analytical technique employingGC-ECD and GC-NPD systems with capillary columns. The testedsamples showed 100% contamination with low but measurableamounts of residues. Among the four chemical groups, theorganophosphates were dominant followed by organochlorines,synthetic pyrethroids and carbamates. About 23% of the samplesshowed contamination with organophosphorous compounds abovetheir respective MRL values. More extensive studies coveringdifferent regions of Haryana state are suggested to get a clearidea of the magnitude of vegetable contamination with pesticideresidues.     

Monitoring of Butter and Ghee (Clarified Butter Fat) for Pesticidal Contamination from Cotton Belt of Haryana, India

Butter (45) and ghee (55) samples were collected from rural and urban areas of cotton growing belt of Haryana and analysed for detecting the residues of organochlorine, synthetic pyrethroid and organophosphate insecticides. The estimation was carried out by using multi residue analytical technique employing GC-ECD and GC-NPD systems equipped with capillary columns. Butter samples were comparatively more contaminated (97%) than ghee (94%), showing more contamination with organochlorine insecticides from urban samples. About 11% samples of butter showed endosulfan residues above MRL value and 2% samples had residues of synthetic pyrethroids and organophosphates each above their respective MRL values. In ghee, residues of HCH & DDT both and of endosulfan exceeded the MRL values in 5 and 20% samples, respectively. Among organophosphates, only chlorpyriphos was detected with 9% samples showing its residue above MRL value. Irrespective of contamination levels, residues above the MRL values were more in ghee. More extensive study covering other agricultural regions/zones of Haryana has been suggested to know the overall scenario of contamination of milk products.     

Monitoring of Pesticide Residues in Fruits

Fruit samples of ber, grapes and guava analysed for pesticide residues employing multiresidue analysis by gas liquid chromatography equipped with ECD and NPD detectors and capillary columns showed contamination with organochlorine, synthetic pyrethroid and organophosphate insecticides. Among organochlorines, HCH, DDT and endosulfan were detected in almost all the samples. Residues of HCH and DDT were maximum in ber followed by grapes and guava where as of endosulfan were maximum in guava followed by grapes and ber. All the fruit samples showed the presence of residues with one or the other group of pesticides. Residues of none of the pesticides exceeded the MRL values in any sample. On the basis of these studies, it is suggested that monitoring studies should be extended to other fruits grown in different agro climatic regions which may serve as basis for future policy in chemical use.     

Pesticides residues in vegetables in and around Delhi

This article presents the development of a multiresidue method forthe estimation of 30 insecticides, 15 organochlorineinsecticides and 6 organophosphorus insecticides, 9 syntheticpyrethriods and 2 herbicides and their quantificationin vegetables. The monitoring study indicates that though allthe vegetable samples were contaminated with pesticides, only31% of the samples contained pesticides above the prescribedtolerance limit.     

The concentrations, distribution and sources of PAHs in agricultural soils and vegetables from Shunde, Guangdong, China

The concentrations, distribution and sources of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in 30 agricultural soil and 16 vegetable samples collected from subtropical Shunde area, an important manufacturing center in China. The total PAHs ranged from 33.7 to 350 μg/kg in soils, and 82 to 1,258 μg/kg in vegetables. The most abundant individual PAHs are phenanthrene, fluoranthene, chrysene, pyrene and benzo(b)fluoranthene for soil samples, and anthracene, naphthalene, phenanthrene, pyrene and chrysene for vegetable samples. Average vegetable–soil ratios of total PAHs were 2.20 for leafy vegetables and 1.27 for fruity vegetables. Total PAHs in vegetable samples are not significantly correlated to those in corresponding soil samples. Principal component analyses were conducted to distinguish samples on basis of their distribution in each town, soil type and vegetable specie. Relatively abundant soil PAHs were found in town Jun’an, Beijiao, Chencun, Lecong and Ronggui, while abundant vegetable PAHs were observed in town Jun’an, Lecong, Xingtan, Daliang and Chenchun. The highest level of total PAHs were found in vegetable soil, followed by pond sediment and “stacked soil” on pond banks. The PAHs contents in leafy vegetables are higher than those in fruity vegetables. Some PAH compound ratios suggest the PAHs derived from incomplete combustion of petroleum, coal and refuse from power generation and ceramic manufacturing, and paint spraying on furniture, as well as sewage irrigation from textile industries. Soil PAHs contents have significant logarithmic correlation with total organic carbon, which demonstrates the importance of soil organic matter as sorbent to prevent losses of PAHs.     

Assessment of water quality of some swimming pools: a case study in Alexandria, Egypt

In spite of the importance and popularity of swimming pools in summer, they have been identified as posing some public health risks to users due to either chemical or microbiological contamination. This study was carried out aiming at assessing the quality of water for some Alexandria's swimming pools in order to determine its compliance with the Egyptian standards no. 418/1995. Five swimming pools were selected randomly from different districts. Physical and chemical parameters, as well as biological examination of a total of 30 samples, were carried out using standard analytical methods. Water samples were collected from the studied swimming pools monthly over 6?months and pool water monitoring was carried out during afternoon of the weekends when the pools were most heavily used. The results indicated overall poor compliance with the standards. Compliance of the pool water to the microbial parameters, residual chlorine, pH, and turbidity were 56.7% (17 samples), 20% (6 samples), 46.7% (14 samples), and 46.7% (14 samples), respectively. Statistical analysis showed significant association between water contamination with microbial indicators and physical–chemical aspects such as residual chlorine, temperature, turbidity, and load of swimmers. Furthermore, Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia lamblia cysts has been found in 10% of samples. It was concluded that there is a need to improve disinfection and cleaning procedures, with consideration given to safety, and size of the pool in relation to bathing load. There is also a need to monitor swimming pool water quality continuously, and to increase bather hygienic practices and awareness of the risks as well as training of governmental inspectors.     

Composition, sources, and potential toxicology of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in agricultural soils in Liaoning, People’s Republic of China

Surface soil (0–20 cm) samples (n?=?143) were collected from vegetable, maize, and paddy farmland used for commercial crops in Liaoning, China. Sixteen priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) listed in US Environmental Protection Agency were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography using a fluorescence detector. The soil concentrations of the 16 PAH ranged from 50 to 3,309 ng/g with a mean of 388 ng/g. The highest concentration of total PAHs found in soil of the vegetable farmland was 448 ng/g in average, followed by maize and paddy with total PAHs of 391 and 331 ng/g, respectively. Generally, the low molecular weight PAHs were more predominant than the high molecular weight PAHs in most of the soils. The evaluation of soil PAH contamination based on the Canadian criterion indicated that only naphthalene, phenanthrene, and pyrene were over the target values in several sampling sites. Isomer pair ratios and principal component analysis indicated that biomass and coal combustion were the main sources of PAHs in this area. And the average value of total B[a]Peq concentration in vegetable soils was higher than paddy and maize soils. We suggest that biomass burning should be abolished and commercial farming should be carried out far from the highways to ensure the safety of food products derived from commercial farming.     

Appraisal of heavy metal concentration in selected vegetables exposed to different degrees of pollution in Agra, India

The accumulation of air-borne heavy metals in edible parts of vegetables in the chosen areas of the city of Agra, India was investigated. Agra, with a population of 1.7 million, is a medium-sized Indian city where leafy green vegetables are received generally from the surrounding areas of about 50 km radius. Vegetables Basella alba (spinch, locally called palak), Trigonella foenumgraecum (fenugreek, locally called methi), and Coriandrum sativum (coriander, locally called dhania) from the various sites of Agra, India were tested for Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Zn by atomic absorption spectroscopy in washed and unwashed vegetable. The results obtained from this analysis revealed higher concentrations of toxic elements in unwashed samples than the washed samples. Among unwashed samples it was found that concentration of heavy metals is more in areas of busy traffic or industry density. The levels of lead in all samples were found above the maximum permissible limit recommended by PFA for metals in vegetables. The study concludes that transportation and storage systems during marketing play a significant role in determining the contamination and deposition of heavy metal on vegetable surfaces specially of the leafy variety.     

Ground water contamination by organochlorine insecticide residues in a rural area in the indo-gangetic plain

Residues of several organochlorine insecticides were monitored in the ground water from a rural area near Farrukhabad in the vicinity of the Ganga River in northern India for one year (1991–1992). Almost all the samples were found to be contaminated with residues of Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT). Residues of Aldrin, endosulfan and heptachlor were also detected in a large number of samples. The concentrations of aldrin residues greatly exceeded the WHO guideline value for drinking water, concentrations of heptachlor and DDT residues also occasionally exceeded the specified limits. Migration of pollutants through ground water recharge with polluted Ganga River water and monsoon rains carrying undergraded residues downwards from the soil surface are throught to be important sources of insecticide contamination of ground water in the region.     

Integrating Remote Sensing Approach with Pollution Monitoring Tools for Aquatic Ecosystem Risk Assessment and Managment: A Case Study of Lake Victoria(UGANDA)

Aquatic ecosystems around the world, lake, estuaries and coastal areas are increasingly impacted by anthropogenic pollutants through different sources such as agricultural, industrial and urban discharges, atmospheric deposition and terrestrial drainage. Lake Victoria is the second largest lake in the world and the largest tropical lake. Bordered by Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya, it provides a livelihood for millions of Africans in the region. However, the lake is under threat from eutrophication, a huge decline in the number of native fish species caused by several factors including loss of biodiversity, over fishing and pollution has been recently documented. Increasing usage of pesticides and insecticides in the adjacent agricultural areas as well as mercury contamination from processing of gold ore on the southern shores are currently considered among the most emergent phenomena of chemical contamination in the lake. By the application of globally consistent and comprehensive geospatial data-sets based on remote sensing integrated with information on heavy metals accumulation and insecticides exposure in native and alien fish populations, the present study aims at assessing the environmental risk associated to the contamination of the Lake Victoria water body on fish health, land cover distribution, biodiversity and the agricultural area surrounding the lake. By the elaboration of Landsat 7 TM data of November 2002 and Landsat 7 TM 1986 we have calculated the agriculture area which borders the Lake Victoria bay, which is an upland plain. This process has greatly enhanced nutrient loading to the soil, which is subsequently transported to the lake by rain or as dry fall. All the data has been insert in the Geographical information System (ARCGIS) to be upgraded and consulted. Heavy metals in fish fillets showed concentrations rather low except for mercury being higher than others as already described in previous investigations. In the same tissue, cholinesterases activity (ChE) as an indicator of insecticides exposure showed significant differences among fish species in both activity and sensitivity of selected inhibitor insecticides. This integrated approach aims at identifying and quantifying selected aquatic environmental issues which integrated with monitoring techniques such as contaminant concentrations and biological responses to insecticides exposure in fish populations will provide a scientific basis for aquatic zones management and assist in policy formulations at the national and international levels.     

Occurrence and behaviour of organophosphorus insecticides in the River Wuchuan,southeast China

Organophosphorus (OP) insecticides are used worldwide, yet their persistence in the environment is not well understood. This paper summarises recent research on 17 OP insecticides in the River Wuchuan, an important catchment in China, by determining their concentrations in water, soil, sediment and plants by gas chromatography with flame photometric detection (GC-FPD). The concentrations of the total OP insecticides ranged from 92.77 to 229 ng l-1 in river water, 1.61 to 9.93 ng g-1 dry weight in soil, 1.24 to 7.56 ng g-1 dry weight in sediment and 75.28 to 326 ng g-1 dry weight in plants. There was a relatively high abundance of methamidophos, dichlorvos, malathion, omethoate and dimethoate in all water, soil, sediment and plant samples. On average, these five compounds collectively accounted for 64%, 71%, 71% and 54% of the total OP insecticide concentration in water, soil, sediment and plants, respectively, which was similar to the composition of OP insecticides in application formulations used in our study area and in China as a whole. The results therefore reflect the application pattern to some extent, and suggest that the sources of the OP insecticides are mainly from current usage. When compared with other areas, the levels of OP insecticides in the River Wuchuan were moderate. The animal and human risks from exposure to OP insecticides in water and plants were evaluated against relevant threshold values. The results therefore provide important information on the current contamination status of a key agricultural watershed in China, and point to the need for urgent action to control the use of some excessively applied and potentially persistent agrochemicals, such as methamidophos, omethoate and dimethoate.     

Status of heavy metals in agricultural soils as affected by different patterns of land use

This study was conducted to determine status of heavy metals in agricultural soils under different patterns of land use. A total of 38, 40 and 45 soil samples for bare vegetable field, greenhouse vegetable field, and grain crop field were respectively taken from surface layer (0–20 cm) from selected experimental areas away from suburbs of ten counties (or districts or cities) in four provinces or municipalities of Huabei plain in north China. Information of crop production history, including varieties, rotation systems and fertilizer use, at the corresponding sampling sites was surveyed. Soil total Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cr, As and Hg were measured. The results showed that the contents of total Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cr, As, and Hg in the soil samples, especially soil total Cu and Zn contents, were higher in the bare vegetable field and the greenhouse vegetable field than that in the grain crop field. Long-term use of excessive chemical fertilizers and organic manures in the bare vegetable field and the greenhouse vegetable field contributed to the accumulation of Cu, Zn, and other heavy metals in the soils. The contents of total Cu, Zn, and other heavy metals in soils increased with increasing vegetable production history of the research areas. In comparison with the grain crop field, the comprehensive pollution indices of the seven soil heavy metals and the single-factor pollution indices of soil Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, and Hg based on the second criterion of Environmental Quality Standard for Soils were significantly higher in the bare vegetable field and the greenhouse vegetable field. Soils from the greenhouse vegetable field were slightly contaminated according to the comprehensive pollution index, and soils from the bare vegetable field and the grain crop field were at the warning heavy metal pollution level. The soils were contaminated with Cd according to the single-factor pollution index. The Cd pollution was relatively more serious in the bare vegetable field and the greenhouse vegetable field than that in the grain crop field. The soils selected with different land use patterns were not contaminated with Zn, Cu, Pb, Cr, As and Hg.     

Heavy Metal Load Of Soil, Water And Vegetables In Peri-Urban Delhi

Peri-urban lands are often used for production of vegetables for better market accessibility and higher prices. But most of these lands are contaminated with heavy metals through industrial effluents, sewage and sludge, and vehicular emission. Vegetables grown in such lands, therefore, are likely to be contaminated with heavy metals and unsafe for consumption. Samples of vegetables i.e., spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) and okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.); soil and irrigation water were collected from 5 peri-urban sites of New Delhi to monitor their heavy metal loads. While heavy metal load of the soils were below the maximum allowable limit prescribed by the World Health Organization (WHO), it was higher in irrigation water and vegetable samples. The spinach and okra samples showed Zn, Pb and Cd levels higher than the WHO limits. The levels of Cu, however, were at their safe limits. Metal contamination was higher in spinach than in okra. Spatial variability of metal contamination was also observed in the study. Bio-availability of metals present in soil showed a positive relationship with their total content and organic matter content of soil but no relationship was observed with soil pH. Washing of vegetables with clean water was a very effective and easy way of decontaminating the metal pollution as it reduced the contamination by 75 to 100%.     

Atmospheric transport of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) to Bjørnøya (Bear island)

A first medium term monitoring of atmospheric transport and distribution for persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Bj?rn?ya (Bear island) air samples has been performed in the period between week 51/1999 and week 28/2003. A total of 50 single compounds consisting of polychlorinated biphenyls (33 congeners), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (alpha-, beta-, gamma-HCH), alpha-endosulfan, cyclodiene pesticides (chlordanes, nonachlor-isomers, oxy-chlordane, heptachlor and chlordane) as well as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) derivatives were analysed and quantified. Atmospheric transport of POPs was identified as an important contamination source for the island. PCBs, HCB and HCH isomers were the predominant POP groups, contributing with 70-90% to the overall POP burden quantified in the Bj?rn?ya air samples. The highest concentration levels for a single compound were found for HCB (25-35 pg m(-3)). However, the sum of 33 PCB congeners was found to be in the same concentration range (annual means between 15 and 30 pg m(-3)). Cyclodiene pesticides, DDT derivatives and alpha-endosulfan were identified as minor contaminants. Several atmospheric long-range transport episodes were identified and characterised. Indications for industrial emissions as well as agricultural sources were found for the respective atmospheric transport episodes. A first simple statistical correlation assessment showed that for long-range transport of pollution, the local meteorological situation is not as important as the air mass properties integrated over the time period of the transport event. The local weather situation, on the other hand, is important when investigating deposition rates and up-take/accumulation properties in the local ecosystem. Based upon chemical data interpretation, valuable information about the influence of primary and secondary sources on the air mass contamination with chlorinated insecticides (e.g., HCHs) was found and discussed. The interdisciplinary interpretation of contaminant data using statistical methods, chemical analysis, meteorological modelling and classical meteorological information for a comprehensive evaluation of atmospheric long range transport into the European Arctic (Bj?rn?ya) has proven to be a highly versatile tool not only for atmospheric scientists but also with strong potential for regulatory purposes.     

Monitoring of pesticide residues in vegetarian diet

Samples (28) of complete vegetarian diet consumed from morning till night i.e. tea, milk, breakfast, lunch, snacks, dinner, sweet dish etc. were collected from homes, hostels and hotels periodically from Hisar and analysed for detecting the residues of organochlorine, synthetic pyrethriod, organophosphate and carbamate insecticides. The estimation was carried out by using multi-residue analytical technique employing gas chromatograph (GC)-electron capture detector and GC-nitrogen phosphorous detector systems equipped with capillary columns. The whole diet sample was macerated in a mixer grinder and a representative sample in duplicate was analyzed for residues keeping the average daily diet of an adult to be 1,300 g. On comparing the data, it was found that actual daily intake (microgram/person/day) of lindane in two and endosulfan in four samples exceeded the acceptable daily intake. Residues of other pesticides in all the diet samples were lower than the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of the respective pesticides. The study concluded that although all the diet samples were found contaminated with one or the other pesticide, the actual daily intake of only a few pesticides was higher than their respective ADI. More extensive study covering other localities of Haryana has been suggested to know the overall scenario of contamination of vegetarian diet.     

Organochlorine Pesticides and PCBs in Wild Boars from Calabria (Italy)

At present, there are no specific studies on the evaluation of environmental toxicological risks in Calabria (south of Italy) and on the presence of contaminants in the fauna of this region. The aim of the present research was to investigate the levels of contamination by OC pesticides and PCBs in some organs and tissues of wild boars (utilized as 'biological indicator') from various areas of Calabria. Quantitative determinations of organochlorines were carried out using GC-ECD and confirmed with GC-MS in 154 samples from wild boars (heart, liver, lung, kidney, muscle tissue and spleen) during the hunting season from 2000 to 2002. The results indicate the low residual levels of DDE in 8 samples and DDT in 4 samples and PCBs residues (Aroclor 1232) below the detection limits were found. Therefore, these results show that the Calabria region is not at contamination risk from organochlorines and moreover is free from health problems for the consumer of boar meat.     

Insecticide residues in soil and water in coastal areas of vegetable production in Togo

Some common organochlorine, organophosphorus and pyrethroid insecticides were analysed in agricultural soil samples (n?=?35) and surface water and groundwater samples (n?=?25) collected from coastal areas of vegetable production in Togo. Analytical methods included solvent extraction of the insecticide residues and their subsequent quantification using GC-ECD. δ-HCH, heptachlor epoxide, 4,4-DDE, endosulphan (α, β and sulphate), lambda-cyalothrin and chlorpyrifos were found in the soil samples with concentrations that varied from non-detectable (ND) to 26.93 μg kg^?1 dry weight. For water samples, heptachlor epoxide, 2,4-DDD, 4,4-DDD, 4,4-DDE and endosulphan (α, β, and sulphate) were found at contamination levels that varied from ND to 0.116 μg L^?1. The concentration of insecticide residues detected in the water samples was below the limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO) and also by the European Union (EU), with the exception of the concentration of endosulphan sulphate at the Aného site, which was 0.116 μg L^?1.     

Assessment of the effects of Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb soil contamination by ecotoxicological tests

This study aimed to assess soil quality by chemical and ecotoxicological investigations and to check the correspondence between soil metal concentrations and ecotoxicity. For these purposes, surface soils collected at four adjacent roadside urban parks and at a former industrial area were characterized for C/N, organic matter content, texture, and pH. Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb, chosen among the most representative soil metal contaminants, were measured as total content and as available and water soluble fractions. In addition, the total concentrations of the investigated metals were used to calculate two chemical indices: the contamination and the potential ecological risk factors. The toxicity of the investigated soils was evaluated by an ecotoxicity test battery carried out on both soil samples (Vibrio fischeri, Heterocypris incongruens and Sinapis alba) and elutriates (Vibrio fischeri, Daphnia magna and Selenastrum capricornutum). The findings, both by the chemical and ecotoxicological approaches, would suggest that the soils with high metal contamination pose ecological risks. On the other hand, moderately metal contaminated soils did not exclude soil ecotoxicity. In fact, toxic effects were also highlighted in soils with low metal content, toxicity being affected by metal availability and soil characteristics. Moreover, the results suggest the importance of using a battery of tests to assess soil ecotoxicity.     

A spatial analysis of pit latrine density and groundwater source contamination

This study aims to assess the relationship between chemical and microbial contamination of groundwater sources and a range of potential hazards in two peri-urban areas of Kisumu, Kenya where shallow wells and pit latrines are widely used. From 1998 to 2004, 263 samples were taken from 61 groundwater sources and tested for thermotolerant coliforms. Eighteen of these sources were also tested for chemical contaminants, including nitrate, chloride and fluoride. The locations of all water sources, buildings and pit latrines in the study area were surveyed. Local pit latrine densities were calculated using a geographic information system. Ten out 18 samples were above the World Health Organization guideline values for nitrate, 236 out of 263 were positive for thermotolerant coliforms, and all were above the guideline values for fluoride. There was neither a relationship between thermotolerant coliform levels and daily rainfall patterns nor with sanitary risk inspection scores for samples from shallow wells (r?=?0.01, p?=?0.91, n?=?191). The density of pit latrines within a 100-m radius was significantly correlated with nitrate and chloride levels (r?=?0.64, p?=?0.004 and r?=?0.46, p?=?0.05, respectively) but not with thermotolerant coliforms (r?=?0.22, p?=?0.11). These results illustrate both the public health risks associated with shallow groundwater sources, on-site sanitation and high population density. These findings have implications for current policies that promote latrine construction, especially in peri-urban areas of high population density. More comprehensive studies of larger communities should be commissioned to extend this analysis of the links between latrine density and groundwater contamination and so identify the contingent policy risks.