Testing of the Modified Streambank Erosion and Instream Phosphorus Routines for the SWAT Model

In some watersheds, streambanks are a source of two major pollutants, phosphorus (P) and sediment. P originating from both uplands and streambanks can be transported and stored indefinitely on floodplains, streambanks, and in closed depressions near the stream. The objectives of this study were to (1) test the modified streambank erosion and instream P routines for the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model in the Barren Fork Creek watershed in northeast Oklahoma, (2) predict P in the watershed with and without streambank‐derived P, and (3) determine the significance of streambank erosion P relative to overland P sources. Measured streambank and channel parameters were incorporated into a flow‐calibrated SWAT model and used to estimate streambank erosion and P for the Barren Fork Creek using modified streambank erosion and instream P routines. The predicted reach‐weighted streambank erosion was 40 kg/m vs. the measured 42 kg/m. Streambank erosion contributed 47% of the total P to the Barren Fork Creek and improved P predictions compared to observed data, especially during the high‐flow events. Of the total P entering the stream system, approximately 65% was removed via the watershed outlet and 35% was stored in the floodplain and stream system. This study successfully applied the SWAT model's modified streambank erosion and instream P routines and demonstrated that streambank‐derived P can improve P modeling at the watershed scale. Editor's note: This paper is part of the featured series on SWAT Applications for Emerging Hydrologic and Water Quality Challenges. See the February 2017 issue for the introduction and background to the series.     

Legacy Effects of Colonial Millponds on Floodplain Sedimentation,Bank Erosion,and Channel Morphology,Mid‐Atlantic,USA1

Abstract: Many rivers and streams of the Mid‐Atlantic Region, United States (U.S.) have been altered by postcolonial floodplain sedimentation (legacy sediment) associated with numerous milldams. Little Conestoga Creek, Pennsylvania, a tributary to the Susquehanna River and the Chesapeake Bay, is one of these streams. Floodplain sedimentation rates, bank erosion rates, and channel morphology were measured annually during 2004‐2007 at five sites along a 28‐km length of Little Conestoga Creek with nine colonial era milldams (one dam was still in place in 2007). This study was part of a larger cooperative effort to quantify floodplain sedimentation, bank erosion, and channel morphology in a high sediment yielding region of the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Data from the five sites were used to estimate the annual volume and mass of sediment stored on the floodplain and eroded from the banks for 14 segments along the 28‐km length of creek. A bank and floodplain reach based sediment budget (sediment budget) was constructed for the 28 km by summing the net volume of sediment deposited and eroded from each segment. Mean floodplain sedimentation rates for Little Conestoga Creek were variable, with erosion at one upstream site (?5 mm/year) to deposition at the other four sites (highest = 11 mm/year) despite over a meter of floodplain aggradation from postcolonial sedimentation. Mean bank erosion rates range between 29 and 163 mm/year among the five sites. Bank height increased 1 m for every 10.6 m of channel width, from upstream to downstream (R² = 0.79, p < 0.0001) resulting in progressively lowered hydraulic connectivity between the channel and the floodplain. Floodplain sedimentation and bank erosion rates also appear to be affected by the proximity of the segments to one existing milldam, which promotes deposition upstream and scouring downstream. The floodplain and bank along the 28‐km reach produced a net mean sediment loss of 5,634 Mg/year for 2004‐2007, indicating that bank erosion was exceeding floodplain sedimentation. In particular, the three segments between the existing dam and the confluence with the Conestoga River (32% of the studied reach) account for 97% of the measured net sediment budget. Future research directed at understanding channel equilibria should facilitate efforts to reduce the sediment impacts of dam removal and legacy sediment.     

ROLE OF WATERSHED SUBDIVISION ON MODELING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES WITH SWAT1

Distributed parameter watershed models are often used for evaluating the effectiveness of various best management practices (BMPs). Streamflow, sediment, and nutrient yield predictions of a watershed model can be affected by spatial resolution as dictated by watershed subdivision. The objectives of this paper are to show that evaluation of BMPs using a model is strongly linked to the level of watershed subdivision; to suggest a methodology for identifying an appropriate subdivision level; and to examine the efficacy of different BMPs at field and watershed scales. In this study, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was calibrated and validated for streamflow, sediment, and nutrient yields at the outlet of the Dreisbach (623 ha) and Smith Fry (730 ha) watersheds in Maumee River Basin, Indiana. Grassed waterways, grade stabilization structures, field borders, and parallel terraces are the BMPs that were installed in the study area in the 1970s. Sediment and nutrient outputs from the calibrated model were compared at various watershed subdivision levels, both with and without implementation of these BMPs. Results for the study watersheds indicated that evaluation of the impacts of these BMPs on sediment and nutrient yields was very sensitive to the level of subdivision that was implemented in SWAT. An optimal watershed subdivision level for representation of the BMPs was identified through numerical simulations. For the study watersheds, it would appear that the average subwatershed area corresponding to approximately 4 percent of total watershed area is needed to represent the influence of these BMPs when using the SWAT model.     

Assessment of a turfgrass sod best management practice on water quality in a suburban watershed

The disposal of manure on agricultural land has caused water quality concerns in many rural watersheds, sometimes requiring state environmental agencies to conduct total maximum daily load (TMDL) assessments of stream nutrients, such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). A best management practice (BMP) has been developed in response to a TMDL that mandates a 50% reduction of annual P load to the North Bosque River (NBR) in central Texas. This BMP exports composted dairy manure P through turfgrass sod from the NBR watershed to urban watersheds. The manure-grown sod releases P slowly and would not require additional P fertilizer for up to 20 years in the receiving watershed. This would eliminate P application to the sod and improve the water quality of urban streams. The soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) was used to model a typical suburban watershed that would receive the sod grown with composted dairy manure to assess water quality changes due to this BMP. The SWAT model was calibrated to simulate historical flow and estimated sediment and nutrient loading to Mary's Creek near Fort Worth, Texas. The total P stream loading to Mary's Creek was lower when manure-grown sod was transplanted instead of sod grown with inorganic fertilizers. Flow, sediment and total N yield were the same for both cases at the watershed outlet. The SWAT simulations indicated that the turfgrass BMP can be used effectively to import manure P into an urban watershed and reduce in-stream P levels when compared to sod grown with inorganic fertilizers.     

Riverine Threat Indices to Assess Watershed Condition and Identify Primary Management Capacity of Agriculture Natural Resource Management Agencies

Managers can improve conservation of lotic systems over large geographies if they have tools to assess total watershed conditions for individual stream segments and can identify segments where conservation practices are most likely to be successful (i.e., primary management capacity). The goal of this research was to develop a suite of threat indices to help agriculture resource management agencies select and prioritize watersheds across Missouri River basin in which to implement agriculture conservation practices. We quantified watershed percentages or densities of 17 threat metrics that represent major sources of ecological stress to stream communities into five threat indices: agriculture, urban, point-source pollution, infrastructure, and all non-agriculture threats. We identified stream segments where agriculture management agencies had primary management capacity. Agriculture watershed condition differed by ecoregion and considerable local variation was observed among stream segments in ecoregions of high agriculture threats. Stream segments with high non-agriculture threats were most concentrated near urban areas, but showed high local variability. 60 % of stream segments in the basin were classified as under U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) primary management capacity and most segments were in regions of high agricultural threats. NRCS primary management capacity was locally variable which highlights the importance of assessing total watershed condition for multiple threats. Our threat indices can be used by agriculture resource management agencies to prioritize conservation actions and investments based on: (a) relative severity of all threats, (b) relative severity of agricultural threats, and (c) and degree of primary management capacity.     

HYDROLOGICAL MODELING OF THE IROQUOIS RIVER WATERSHED USING HSPF AND SWAT1

ABSTRACT: The performance of two popular watershed scale simulation models — HSPF and SWAT — were evaluated for simulating the hydrology of the 5,568 km² Iroquois River watershed in Illinois and Indiana. This large, tile drained agricultural watershed provides distinctly different conditions for model comparison in contrast to previous studies. Both models were calibrated for a nine‐year period (1987 through 1995) and verified using an independent 15‐year period (1972 through 1986) by comparing simulated and observed daily, monthly, and annual streamflow. The characteristics of simulated flows from both models are mostly similar to each other and to observed flows, particularly for the calibration results. SWAT predicts flows slightly better than HSPF for the verification period, with the primary advantage being better simulation of low flows. A noticeable difference in the models' hydrologic simulation relates to the estimation of potential evapotranspiration (PET). Comparatively low PET values provided as input to HSPF from the BASINS 3.0 database may be a factor in HSPF's overestimation of low flows. Another factor affecting baseflow simulation is the presence of tile drains in the watershed. HSPF parameters can be adjusted to indirectly account for the faster subsurface flow associated with tile drains, but there is no specific tile drainage component in HSPF as there is in SWAT. Continued comparative studies such as this, under a variety of hydrologic conditions and watershed scales, provide needed guidance to potential users in model selection and application.     

Sources of Suspended-Sediment Flux in Streams of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed: A Regional Application of the SPARROW Model1

Brakebill, John W., Scott W. Ator, and Gregory E. Schwarz, 2010. Sources of Suspended-Sediment Flux in Streams of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed: A Regional Application of the SPARROW Model. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 46(4): 757-776. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2010.00450.x Abstract: We describe the sources and transport of fluvial suspended sediment in nontidal streams of the Chesapeake Bay watershed and vicinity. We applied SPAtially Referenced Regressions on Watershed attributes, which spatially correlates estimated mean annual flux of suspended sediment in nontidal streams with sources of suspended sediment and transport factors. According to our model, urban development generates on average the greatest amount of suspended sediment per unit area (3,928 Mg/km²/year), although agriculture is much more widespread and is the greatest overall source of suspended sediment (57 Mg/km²/year). Factors affecting sediment transport from uplands to streams include mean basin slope, reservoirs, physiography, and soil permeability. On average, 59% of upland suspended sediment generated is temporarily stored along large rivers draining the Coastal Plain or in reservoirs throughout the watershed. Applying erosion and sediment controls from agriculture and urban development in areas of the northern Piedmont close to the upper Bay, where the combined effects of watershed characteristics on sediment transport have the greatest influence may be most helpful in mitigating sedimentation in the bay and its tributaries. Stream restoration efforts addressing floodplain and bank stabilization and incision may be more effective in smaller, headwater streams outside of the Coastal Plain.     

Sediment Source Fingerprinting: Transforming From a Research Tool to a Management Tool1

Abstract: Information on the nature and relative contribution of different watershed sediment sources is recognized as a key requirement in the design and implementation of targeted management strategies for sediment control. A direct method of assessing sediment sources in a watershed that has attracted attention in recent years is sediment fingerprinting. The aim of this article is to describe the development of sediment fingerprinting as a research tool and to consider how the method might be transformed from a research tool to a management tool within a regulatory framework, with special reference to the United States total maximum daily load (TMDL) program. When compared with the current source assessment tools in developing sediment TMDLs, sediment fingerprinting offers considerable improvement as a tool for quantifying sources of sediment in terms of source type (e.g., channel vs. hillslope) as well as spatial location (subwatershed). While developing a conceptual framework for sediment TMDLs, we recognize sediment fingerprinting along with sediment budgeting and modeling as valuable tools in the TMDL process for developing justifiable sediment TMDLs. The discussions presented in this article may be considered as a first step toward streamlining the sediment fingerprinting approach for its wider application in a regulatory framework.     

Development of a SWAT Patch for Better Estimation of Sediment Yield in Steep Sloping Watersheds1

Abstract: The watershed scale Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model divides watersheds into smaller subwatersheds for simulation of rainfall‐runoff and sediment loading at the field level and routing through stream networks. Typically, the SWAT model first needs to be calibrated and validated for accurate estimation through adjustment of sensitive input parameters (i.e., Curve Number values, USLE P, slope and slope‐length, and so on). However, in some instances, SWAT‐simulated results are greatly affected by the watershed delineation and Digital Elevation Models (DEM) cell size. In this study, the SWAT ArcView GIS Patch II was developed for steep sloping watersheds, and its performance was evaluated for various threshold values and DEM cell size scenarios when delineating subwatersheds using the SWAT model. The SWAT ArcView GIS Patch II was developed using the ArcView GIS Avenue program and Spatial Analyst libraries. The SWAT ArcView GIS Patch II improves upon the SWAT ArcView GIS Patch I because it reflects the topographic factor in calculating the field slope‐length of Hydrologic Response Units in the SWAT model. The simulated sediment value for 321 subwatersheds (watershed delineation threshold value of 25 ha) is greater than that for 43 subwatersheds (watershed delineation threshold value of 200 ha) by 201% without applying the SWAT ArcView GIS Patch II. However, when the SWAT ArcView GIS Patch II was applied, the difference in simulated sediment yield decreases for the same scenario (i.e., difference in simulated sediment with 321 subwatersheds and 43 subwatersheds) was 12%. The simulated sediment value for DEM cell size of 50 m is greater than that for DEM cell size of 10 m by 19.8% without the SWAT ArcView GIS Patch II. However, the difference becomes smaller (3.4% difference) between 50 and 10 m with the SWAT ArcView GIS Patch II for the DEM scenarios. As shown in this study, the SWAT ArcView GIS Patch II can reduce differences in simulated sediment values for various watershed delineation and DEM cell size scenarios. Without the SWAT ArcView GIS Patch II, variations in the SWAT‐simulated results using various watershed delineation and DEM cell size scenarios could be greater than those from input parameter calibration. Thus, the results obtained in this study show that the SWAT ArcView GIS Patch II should be used when simulating hydrology and sediment yield for steep sloping watersheds (especially if average slope of the subwatershed is >25%) for more accurate simulation of hydrology and sediment using the SWAT model. The SWAT ArcView GIS Patch II is available at http://www.EnvSys.co.kr/~swat for free download.     

Monitored and Modeled Correlations of Sediment and Nutrients with Chesapeake Bay Water Clarity

This article analyzes the correlations of the observed and modeled light attenuation coefficient, Kd, with in situ total suspended solids (TSS) and chlorophyll‐a concentrations in Chesapeake Bay (CB) tidal waters, and with sediment and nutrient loads from the Chesapeake watershed. Light attenuation is closely related to in situ TSS and chlorophyll‐a concentrations, however, the strength of the correlation differs among the CB segments. There are distinct differences between saline and tidal fresh segments in the main Bay, but less distinction among saline and tidal fresh segments in the tidal tributaries. The correlation between Kd with sediment and nutrient loads is complicated by the lag times of TSS and the chlorophyll‐a responses to reductions in nutrient and sediment loads from the watershed, and also due to the diverse load sources. Three sets of model sensitivity scenarios were performed with: (1) differential sediment and nutrient loads; (2) selective sediment source types; and (3) geographically isolated inputs. The model results yield similar findings as those based on observed data and provide information regarding the effect of sediment on specific water bodies. Based on the model results a method was developed to determine sediment and nutrient load reductions needed to achieve the water clarity standards of the CB segments.     

Landscape Planning for Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pollution Reduction III: Assessing Phosphorus and Sediment Reduction Potential

Riparian buffers have the potential to improve stream water quality in agricultural landscapes. This potential may vary in response to landscape characteristics such as soils, topography, land use, and human activities, including legacies of historical land management. We built a predictive model to estimate the sediment and phosphorus load reduction that should be achievable following the implementation of riparian buffers; then we estimated load reduction potential for a set of 1598 watersheds (average 54 km²) in Wisconsin. Our results indicate that land cover is generally the most important driver of constituent loads in Wisconsin streams, but its influence varies among pollutants and according to the scale at which it is measured. Physiographic (drainage density) variation also influenced sediment and phosphorus loads. The effect of historical land use on present-day channel erosion and variation in soil texture are the most important sources of phosphorus and sediment that riparian buffers cannot attenuate. However, in most watersheds, a large proportion (approximately 70%) of these pollutants can be eliminated from streams with buffers. Cumulative frequency distributions of load reduction potential indicate that targeting pollution reduction in the highest 10% of Wisconsin watersheds would reduce total phosphorus and sediment loads in the entire state by approximately 20%. These results support our approach of geographically targeting nonpoint source pollution reduction at multiple scales, including the watershed scale.     

TARGETING REMEDIAL MEASURES TO CONTROL NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION1

ABSTRACT_: The watershed model GAMES is used for the evaluation of a targeting approach to control fluvial sedimentation arising from soil erosion in agricultural areas. The data considered for the analysis consists of output from the application of the model to existing and hypothetical soil and crop management systems in two small watersheds of southern Ontario, one in the rolling uplands and the other in a very flat lowland area. The model output includes estimates of spring sediment yield from field-size cells to the stream outlet for existing agricultural management conditions, and estimates of sediment yield resulting from the successive implementation of two levels of soil erosion controls under four remedial measures strategies. The results reveal that, for the rolling upland watershed exhibiting a wide range of soil erosion and sediment yield rates, targeted control programs can be expected to provide an extremely effective approach to sediment control. For flat lowland watersheds, exhibiting relatively uniform soil erosion and sediment yield rates, the strategy of targeting controls may be somewhat more effective than a random approach to control, but not as efficient as in the case of watersheds in more rolling terrain. It is evident from the study that a screening model such as GAMES provides a very useful tool for the planning and evaluation of erosion and sediment control programs.     

Improvement in HSPF's Low‐Flow Predictions by Implementation of a Power Law Groundwater Storage‐Discharge Relationship

We have enhanced the ability of a widely used watershed model, Hydrologic Simulation Program — FORTRAN (HSPF), to predict low flows by reconfiguring the algorithm that simulates groundwater discharge. During dry weather periods, flow in most streams consists primarily of base flow, that is, groundwater discharged from underlying aquifers. In this study, HSPF's groundwater storage‐discharge relationship is changed from a linear to a more general nonlinear relationship which takes the form of a power law. The nonlinear algorithm is capable of simulating streamflow recession curves that have been found in some studies to better match observed dry weather hydrographs. The altered version of HSPF is implemented in the Chesapeake Bay Program's Phase 5 Model, an HSPF‐based model that simulates nutrient and sediment loads to the Chesapeake Bay, and is tested in the upper Potomac River basin, a 29,950 km² drainage area that is part of the Bay watershed. The nonlinear relationship improved median Nash‐Sutcliffe efficiencies for log daily flows at the model's 45 calibration points. Mean absolute percent error on low‐flow days dropped in five major Potomac River tributaries by up to 12 percentage points, and in the Potomac River itself by four percentage points, where low‐flow days were defined as days when observed flows were in the lowest 5th percentile range. Percent bias on low‐flow days improved by eight percentage points in the Potomac River, from ?11 to ?3%.     

WATERSHED SCALE MODELING OF CRITICAL SOURCE AREAS OF RUNOFF GENERATION AND PHOSPHORUS TRANSPORT1

ABSTRACT: A curve number based model, Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), and a physically based model, Soil Moisture Distribution and Routing (SMDR), were applied in a headwater watershed in Pennsylvania to identify runoff generation areas, as runoff areas have been shown to be critical for phosphorus management. SWAT performed better than SMDR in simulating daily streamflows over the four‐year simulation period (Nash‐Sutcliffe coefficient: SWAT, 0.62; SMDR, 0.33). Both models varied streamflow simulations seasonally as precipitation and watershed conditions varied. However, levels of agreement between simulated and observed flows were not consistent over seasons. SMDR, a variable source area based model, needs further improvement in model formulations to simulate large peak flows as observed. SWAT simulations matched the majority of observed peak flow events. SMDR overpredicted annual flow volumes, while SWAT underpredicted the same. Neither model routes runoff over the landscape to water bodies, which is critical to surface transport of phosphorus. SMDR representation of the watershed as grids may allow targeted management of phosphorus sources. SWAT representation of fields as hydrologic response units (HRUs) does not allow such targeted management.     

Effect of Watershed Subdivision and Filter Width on SWAT Simulation of a Coastal Plain Watershed1

Cho, Jaepil, Richard R. Lowrance, David D. Bosch, Timothy C. Strickland, Younggu Her, and George Vellidis, 2010. Effect of Watershed Subdivision and Filter Width on SWAT Simulation of a Coastal Plain Watershed. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 46(3):586-602. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2010.00436.x Abstract: The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) does not fully simulate riparian buffers, but has a simple filter function that is responsive to filter strip width (FILTERW). The objectives of this study were to (1) evaluate SWAT hydrology and water quality response to changes in watershed subdivision levels and different FILTERW configurations and (2) provide guidance for selecting appropriate watershed subdivision for model runs that include the riparian buffer feature through the FILTERW parameter. Watershed subdivision level is controlled by the critical source area (CSA) which defines the minimum drainage area required to form the origin of a stream. SWAT was calibrated on a 15.7 km² subdrainage within the Little River Experimental Watershed, Georgia. The calibrated parameter set was applied to 32 watershed configurations consisting of four FILTERW representations for each of eight CSA levels. Streamflow predictions were stable regardless of watershed subdivision and FILTERW configuration. Predicted sediment and nutrient loads from upland areas decreased as CSA increased when spatial variations of riparian buffers are considered. Sediment and nutrient yield at the watershed outlet was responsive to different combinations of CSA and FILTERW depending on selected in-stream processes. CSA ranges which provide stable sediment and nutrient yields at the watershed outlet was suggested for avoiding significant modifications in selected parameter set.     

EVALUATION OF THE APPLICABILITY OF THE SWAT MODEL FOR COASTAL WATERSHEDS IN SOUTHEASTERN LOUISIANA1

ABSTRACT: The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) has been used for hydrologic analyses at various watershed scales. However, little is known about the model's performance in coastal watersheds. In this study SWAT was evaluated for its applicability in three Louisiana coastal watersheds: the Amite, Tickfaw, and Tangipahoa River watersheds. The model was calibrated with daily discharge from 1976 to 1977 and validated from 1979 to 1999 for the Amite and Tangipahoa and with daily discharge from 1979 to 1989 for the Tickfaw. Deviation of mean discharge and the Nash‐Sutcliffe model efficiency were used to evaluate model behavior. The study found that Manning's roughness coefficient for the main channel, SCS curve number, and soil evaporation compensation factor were the most sensitive parameters for these coastal watersheds. The Manning's roughness coefficient showed the greatest effect on the response time of surface runoff, suggesting the critical role of channel routing in hydrologic modeling for lowland watersheds. The SWAT model demonstrated an excellent performance, with Nash‐Sutcliffe efficiencies of 0.935, 0.940, and 0.960 for calibrations of the Amite, Tickfaw, and Tangipahoa watersheds, respectively, and of 0.851, 0.811, and 0.867 for validations. The modeling results demonstrate that SWAT is capable of simulating hydrologic processes for medium scale to large scale coastal lowland watersheds in Louisiana.     

Identification of Sediment Sources in Forested Watersheds With Surface Coal Mining Disturbance Using Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes1

Abstract: Sediments and soils were analyzed using stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratio mass spectrometry and carbon and nitrogen elemental analyses to evaluate the their ability to indicate land‐use and land management disturbance and pinpoint loading from sediment transport sources in forested watersheds disturbed by surface coal mining. Samples of transported sediment particulate organic matter were collected from four watersheds in the Southern Appalachian forest region of southeastern Kentucky. The four watersheds had different surface coal mining history that were classified as undisturbed, active mining, and reclaimed conditions. Soil samples were analyzed including reclaimed grassland soils, undisturbed forest soils, geogenic organic matter associated with coal fragments in mining spoil, and soil organic matter from un‐mined grassland soils. Statistically significant differences were found for all biogeochemical signatures when comparing transported sediments from undisturbed watersheds and surface coal mining disturbed watersheds, and the results were attributed to differences in erosion sources and the presence of geogenic organic matter. Sediment transport sources in the surface coal mining watersheds were analyzed using Monte Carlo mass balance un‐mixing and it was found that: δ¹⁵N showed the ability to differentiate streambank erosion and surface soil erosion; and δ¹³C showed the ability to differentiate soil organic matter and geogenic organic matter. Results from the analyses suggest that streambank erosion downstream of surface coal mining sites is an especially significant source of sediment in coal mining disturbed watersheds. Further, the results suggest that the sediment transport processes governing streambank erosion loads are taking longer to reach geomorphologic equilibrium in the watershed as compared with the surface erosion processes. The dual‐isotope technique provides a useful method for further investigation of the impact of surface coal mining in the uplands of the watershed upon the geomorphologic state of the channel and the source of organic matter in aquatic systems impacted by surface coal mining.     

Long‐Term Trends of Nutrients and Sediment from the Nontidal Chesapeake Watershed: An Assessment of Progress by River and Season

To assess historical loads of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and suspended sediment (SS) from the nontidal Chesapeake Bay watershed (NTCBW), we analyzed decadal seasonal trends of flow‐normalized loads at the fall‐line of nine major rivers that account for >90% of NTCBW flow. Evaluations of loads by season revealed N, P, and SS load magnitudes have been highest in January‐March and lowest in July‐September, but the temporal trends have followed similar decadal‐scale patterns in all seasons, with notable exceptions. Generally, total N (TN) load has dropped since the late 1980s, but particulate nutrients and SS have risen since the mid‐1990s. The majority of these rises were from Susquehanna River and relate to diminished net trapping at the Conowingo Reservoir. Substantial rises in SS were also observed, however, in other rivers. Moreover, the summed rise in particulate P load from other rivers is of similar magnitude as from Susquehanna. Dissolved nutrient loads have dropped in the upland (Piedmont and above) rivers, but risen in two small rivers in the Coastal Plain affected by lagged groundwater input. In addition, analysis of fractional contributions revealed consistent N trends across the upland watersheds. Finally, total N:total P ratios have declined in most rivers, suggesting the potential for changes in nutrient limitation. Overall, this integrated study of historical data highlights the value of maintaining long‐term monitoring at multiple watershed locations.     

Relationship of Water Quality and Pollutant Loads to Land Uses in adjoining watersheds1

ABSTRACT: The Grand and Saugeen Rivers in southern Ontario were chosen for study as pilot watersheds under the Pollution From Land Use Activities Reference Group (PLUARG) study. The pilot watersheds have adjacent headwater areas and are physically similar in geology, physiography, and climate. Significant differences in water quality between the watersheds at their outlets are attributed to land use and population differences. The major pollutant sources in the two pilot watersheds were identified as trace elements from urban runoff and point source discharges; phosphorus from agricultural and urban runoff and private waste disposal; chloride from transportation corridors; and sediment and nitrogen from agricultural runoff. Yields at the watershed outlets were similar for suspended sediment and two to three times as high in the Grand River for phosphours, nitrogen, chloride, and lead. The higher phosphorus and nitrogen levels were attributed to larger point source inputs and the higher proportion of agricultural activity, comprising 75 percent of the Grand River basin compared to 64 percent in the Saugeen River basin. Similarly, the higher chloride and lead levels were attributed to an order of magnitude larger population and three times as much urban land in the Grand River basin compared to the Saugeen River basin.     

Spatial and Temporal Evaluation of Hydrological Response to Climate and Land Use Change in Three South Dakota Watersheds

This study analyzed changes in hydrology between two recent decades (1980s and 2010s) with the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) in three representative watersheds in South Dakota: Bad River, Skunk Creek, and Upper Big Sioux River watersheds. Two SWAT models were created over two discrete time periods (1981‐1990 and 2005‐2014) for each watershed. National Land Cover Datasets 1992 and 2011 were, respectively, ingested into 1981‐1990 and 2005‐2014 models, along with corresponding weather data, to enable comparison of annual and seasonal runoff, soil water content, evapotranspiration (ET), water yield, and percolation between these two decades. Simulation results based on the calibrated models showed that surface runoff, soil water content, water yield, and percolation increased in all three watersheds. Elevated ET was also apparent, except in Skunk Creek watershed. Differences in annual water balance components appeared to follow changes in land use more closely than variation in precipitation amounts, although seasonal variation in precipitation was reflected in seasonal surface runoff. Subbasin‐scale spatial analyses revealed noticeable increases in water balance components mostly in downstream parts of Bad River and Skunk Creek watersheds, and the western part of Upper Big Sioux River watershed. Results presented in this study provide some insight into recent changes in hydrological processes in South Dakota watersheds. Editor's note: This paper is part of the featured series on SWAT Applications for Emerging Hydrologic and Water Quality Challenges. See the February 2017 issue for the introduction and background to the series.