Growth,morphology and yield of wheat,barley and oats grown at elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration in a cool,maritime climate

The effects of elevated CO₂ concentration on the growth, yield and quality of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L., cv. ‘Sport’), barley (Hordeum vulgare, cv. ‘Thule’) and oats (Avena sativa, cv. ‘Kapp’) were studied. The study was performed from 20 April to 24 August in ten field chamber units each of 9 m² in a cool (12.6°C) maritime climate under long days (14.6–18.1 h), on the southwest coast of Norway (59°N, 6°E). The total biomass increased at high CO₂ concentration, by 11% and 20% in wheat and barley, respectively. The proportion of small grains increased by 6% in wheat and 26% in barley, but the total grain yield was not affected. The weight of chaff increased by 9% and 19% in wheat and barley, respectively. Plant height was significantly reduced during the growing season at elevated CO₂, by 8–19% in barley and by 9–25% in oats until 6 July when no significant difference in height was found. After 6 July, barley plants at elevated CO₂ were significantly taller than at ambient CO₂ concentration and oats were not affected. Elongation in wheat was not affected by CO₂ concentration at any time in the growing season. No difference in developmental rate could be detected between plants at normal and elevated CO₂ concentrations. The protein content of the grain decreased by 8% in barley, but was not significantly affected in the other species.     

Behavioral and life-history evidence for interspecific competition in the larvae of two heliconian butterflies

Interspecific competition in herbivorous insects remains a controversial issue. To date, many studied systems have not met assumptions of the traditional competition theory, and a new paradigm has been emerging. We examined the behavioral and life-history consequences of common host plant use of Heliconius erato and Dryas iulia (Nymphalidae) in relation to Passiflora suberosa (Passifloraceae). Larvae of the former use the apical portion of this host; the latter is presumably able to explore all plant parts. We assessed host use pattern in relation to leaf age, when reared either alone (D. iulia) or together (D. iulia and H. erato). Larval feeding choice tests with respect to leaf age were performed, and performance was recorded. Observations were made to assess antagonistic behavior of H. erato and D. iulia towards each other, if any. Similarly to H. erato, D. iulia fed on the young leaves significantly more than the mature ones; larvae were not induced to prefer mature leaves. First instars of H. erato used only the apical parts of P. suberosa and displayed aggressive behavior towards D. iulia, which moved to the lower shoot portions. Larval mortality and development time of both species significantly increased when reared together; such performance costs were more pronounced in D. iulia than H. erato. Our study gathers evidences that use of P. suberosa by these heliconian butterflies represent a case of competitive exclusion resulting in niche differentiation, where costs are higher for D. iulia than H. erato.     

Gaudeamus lavocati sp. nov. (Rodentia, Hystricognathi) from the early Oligocene of Zallah, Libya: first African caviomorph?

A new African species of hystricognathous rodent, Gaudeamus lavocati sp. nov., is described herein from the early Oligocene deposits of Zallah locality (Sirt basin, Central Libya). The dental morphology of this species is very close to that of some earliest South American caviomorphs. It allows a reinterpretation of molar crest homologies among earliest caviomorphs, pentalophodonty being confirmed as the plesiomorphic molar condition in Caviomorpha. This morphological resemblance argues for close affinities between Gaudeamus and earliest South American hystricognaths. Cladistic analysis supports Gaudeamus lavocati sp. nov. as the first known African representative of Caviomorpha, implying that its ancestors were part of the African phiomyid group that crossed the South Atlantic by a direct immigration route. Alternatively, the series of derived dental features of Gaudeamus could also be interpreted as evolutionary synchronous convergences of an African hystricognath lineage towards the specialized pattern of some caviomorphs. However, the high level of similarities concerning teeth morphology and enamel microstructure and the similar age of fossiliferous strata on both continents make this interpretation less probable. The phylogenetic position of this taxon is of considerable importance because it represents an enigmatic component of the phiomorph–caviomorph radiation in Africa and appears as a new clue toward the understanding of caviomorph origins.     

Effects of hydrogen fluoride on susceptibility of soybeans to Rhizoctonia solani and Phytophthora megasperma f. sp. glycinea

Ten 14-day-old soybean plants, cv. ‘Williams 82’ were exposed continuously to hydrogen fluoride (HF) at 2 μg F m⁻³ in a controlled-environment chamber. After 1 week, the plants were transplanted into a potting mix infested with Rhizoctonia solani (Rs) or Phytophthora megasperma f. sp. glycinea (Pmg), and again exposed to HF for 1 week. Immediately after transplanting, plants inoculated with Pmg and uninoculated plants were flooded for 48 h, whereas plants with Rs and uninoculated checks were not flooded. One week after inoculation, hypocotyl lesions induced by Rs and Pmg were significantly larger on plants exposed to HF. Total root length infected was increased by exposure to HF, but this effect was not significant. Dry weights of individual plant parts were not affected by HF, but shoot:root ratios were higher after exposure to fluoride in experiments with Pmg. Fluoride concentrations in the leaf blades were positively correlated with root lesion length of plants inoculated with Pmg but not in those of plants inoculated with Rs.     

An ‘ameridelphian’ marsupial from the early Eocene of Australia supports a complex model of Southern Hemisphere marsupial biogeography

Recent molecular data strongly support the monophyly of all extant Australian and New Guinean marsupials (Eomarsupialia) to the exclusion of extant South American marsupials. This, together with available geological and fossil evidence, has been used to argue that the presence of marsupials in Australia is simply the result of a single dispersal event from South America during the latest Cretaceous or Palaeocene, without subsequent dispersals between the two continents. Here, I describe an isolated ankle bone (calcaneus) of a metatherian from the early Eocene Tingamarra Local Fauna in northeastern Australia. Strikingly, this specimen, QM F30060, lacks the ‘continuous lower ankle joint pattern’ (CLAJP), presence of which is a highly distinctive apomorphy of the marsupial clade Australidelphia, which includes Eomarsupialia, the living South American microbiotherian Dromiciops and the Tingamarran fossil marsupial Djarthia. Comparisons with a range of marsupials and stem-metatherians strongly suggest that the absence of the CLAJP in QM F30060 is plesiomorphic, and that this specimen represents the first unequivocal non-australidelphian (‘ameridelphian’) metatherian known from Australia. This interpretation is confirmed by phylogenetic analyses that place QM F30060 within (crown-group) Marsupialia, but outside Australidelphia. Based on these results, the distribution of marsupials within Gondwana cannot be explained by simply a single dispersal event from South America and Australia. Either there were multiple dispersals by marsupials (and possibly also stem-metatherians) between South America and Australia, in one or both directions, or, alternatively, there was a broadly similar metatherian fauna stretching across southern South America, Antarctica and Australia during the Late Cretaceous–early Palaeogene.     

常年淹水和干旱对三峡库区消落带菖蒲生长恢复的影响

菖蒲是三峡库区常见的一种湿生植物,本研究探讨了常年淹水对菖蒲生长恢复的影响,并分析了干旱对露水后菖蒲生长恢复的影响,为三峡库区消落带植被恢复物种的选择提供科学依据.分别于2009年9月和2010年9月前后2次将菖蒲(Acorus calamus L.)植株完全淹水,分别于翌年3、4、5月将植株露水(分别记为S1、S2和S3),2011年定期统计植株数和叶片数,测定叶长、叶宽.结果表明,淹水导致植株萌发数显著低于对照,且随着淹水时间增加植株萌发数呈显著降低趋势;淹水显著促进3月和4月露水植株叶片的伸长和形成,其叶长、叶片数、株叶长和总叶长显著高于对照,而5月露水植株的叶长、叶宽、叶片数、株叶长、总叶长和总叶片数均显著低于对照.随着淹水时间的增加露水后植株死亡数呈显著增大趋势,S1和S2组的叶长、叶宽显著增长,叶片数显著降低,而S3组植株叶长、叶宽、叶片数、株叶长、总叶长和总叶片数均显著降低.干旱导致对照、S1和S2组植株叶长、叶宽、株叶长、总叶长、叶片数和总叶片数均显著降低,植株存活数显著降低;干旱胁迫去除25 d后,对照、S1和S2组植株的叶片数分别增加了67.0%、66.7%和36.2%,且S1和S2组植株的株叶长、总叶长和总叶片数分别增加了48.2%、18.1%,66.7%、35.0%,75.0%、64.3%,差异显著(P<0.05).因此,菖蒲不仅对淹水的适应和耐受能力较强,而且露水后的生长恢复能力及对干旱的恢复能力也较强,可作为三峡库区消落带(特别是3月和4月露水区域)的恢复、重建物种.     

Response of the bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi) to climate change in relation to its pest status, vectoring potential and function in a crop-vector-virus pathosystem

Global climate change threatens world food production via direct effects on plant growth and alterations to pest and pathogen prevalence and distribution. Complex relationships between host plant, pest, pathogen and environment create uncertainty particularly involving vector-borne diseases. We attempt to improve the understanding of the effects of climate change via a detailed review of one crop-vector-pathogen system.The bird cherry-oat aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi, is a global pest of cereals and vector of yellow dwarf viruses that cause significant crop losses in cereals. R. padi exhibits both sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction, alternating between crops and other host plants. In Australia, only parthenogenesis occurs due to the absence of the primary host, thus the aphid continuously cycles from grasses to cereals, allowing for continuous virus acquisition and transmission.We have reviewed the potential impact of future climate projections on R. padi population dynamics, persistence, abundance, dispersal and migration events as well as the interactions between vector, virus, crop and environment, all of which are critical to the behaviour and development of the vector and its ability to transmit the virus. We identify a number of knowledge gaps that currently limit efforts to determine how this pathosystem will function in a future climate.     

Enantioselective effects of imazethapyr residues on Arabidopsis thaliana metabolic profile and phyllosphere microbial communities

Imazethapyr (IM) is a widely used acetolactate synthase-inhibiting chiral herbicide. It has long-term residuals that may be absorbed by the human body through the edible parts of plants, such as vegetable leaves or fruits. Here, we selected a model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, to determine the effects of R-IM and S-IM on its leaf structure, photosynthetic efficiency, and metabolites, as well as the structures of microorganisms in the phyllosphere, after 7 days of exposure. Our results indicated enantiomeric differences in plant growth between R-IM and S-IM; 133 µg/kg R-IM showed heavier inhibition of photosynthetic efficiency and greater changes to subcellular structure than S-IM. R-IM and S-IM also had different effects on metabolism and leaf microorganisms. S-IM mainly increased lipid compounds and decreased amino acids, while R-IM increased sugar accumulation. The relative abundance of Moraxellaceae human pathogenic bacteria was increased by R-IM treatment, indicating that R-IM treatment may increase leaf surface pathogenic bacteria. Our research provides a new perspective for evaluating the harmfulness of pesticide residues in soil, phyllosphere microbiome changes via the regulation of plant metabolism, and induced pathogenic bacterial accumulation risks.     

Governance of sustainable transitions: about the 4(0) ways to change the world

Transitions are radical system innovations that usually take 1–2 generations. Using Cultural Theory as a heuristic, this paper presents four archetypical approaches to transition management. The fatalist approach refrains from transition management (motto: ‘First, disaster must happen’). The system is in a stalemate that no experiment or hierarchy can break; external events must bring the window of opportunity for change. The hierarchic approach relies on a dominant actor coalition to steer change (motto: ‘Let's put a man on the moon!’). The individualist approach relies mainly on changing the financial ground rules (motto: ‘Sustainability through the market’). Finally, the egalitarian approach relies on process management, doing experiments, etc. (motto: ‘A good transition arena will solve it all’). This approach makes sense if the situation is not clear enough to be managed via one of the other approaches, and there is a clearly identifiable learning objective.     

Adaptation to climate change of wheat growing in South Australia: Analysis of management and breeding strategies

Evaluation of adaptive management options is very crucial for successfully dealing with negative climate change impacts. Research objectives of this study were (1) to determine the proper N application rate for current practice, (2) to select a range of synthetic wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars to expand the existing wheat cultivar pool for adaptation purpose, (3) to quantify the potential impacts of climate change on wheat grain yield and (4) to evaluate the effectiveness of three common management options such as early sowing, changing N application rate and use of different wheat cultivars derived in (2) and given in the APSIM-Wheat model package in dealing with the projected negative impacts for Keith, South Australia. The APSIM-Wheat model was used to achieve these objectives. It was found that 75 kg ha^?1 N application at sowing for current situation is appropriate for the study location. This provided a non-limiting N supply condition for climate change impact and adaptation evaluation. Negative impacts of climate change on wheat grain yield were projected under both high (?15%) and low (?10%) plant available water capacity conditions. Neither changes in N application level nor in wheat cultivar alone nor their synergistic effects could offset the negative climate change impact. It was found that early sowing is an effective adaptation strategy when initial soil water was reset at 25 mm at sowing but this may be hard to realise especially since a drier environment is projected.     

Nocturnal herbivore-induced plant volatiles attract the generalist predatory earwig <Emphasis Type="Italic">Doru luteipes</Emphasis> Scudder

Numerous studies have demonstrated that entomophagous arthropods use herbivore-induced plant volatile (HIPV) blends to search for their prey or host. However, no study has yet focused on the response of nocturnal predators to volatile blends emitted by prey damaged plants. We investigated the olfactory behavioral responses of the night-active generalist predatory earwig Doru luteipes Scudder (Dermaptera: Forficulidae) to diurnal and nocturnal volatile blends emitted by maize plants (Zea mays) attacked by either a stem borer (Diatraea saccharalis) or a leaf-chewing caterpillar (Spodoptera frugiperda), both suitable lepidopteran prey. Additionally, we examined whether the earwig preferred odors emitted from short- or long-term damaged maize. We first determined the earwig diel foraging rhythm and confirmed that D. luteipes is a nocturnal predator. Olfactometer assays showed that during the day, although the earwigs were walking actively, they did not discriminate the volatiles of undamaged maize plants from those of herbivore damaged maize plants. In contrast, at night, earwigs preferred volatiles emitted by maize plants attacked by D. saccharalis or S. frugiperda over undamaged plants and short- over long-term damaged maize. Our GC-MS analysis revealed that short-term damaged nocturnal plant volatile blends were comprised mainly of fatty acid derivatives (i.e., green leaf volatiles), while the long-term damaged plant volatile blend contained mostly terpenoids. We also observed distinct volatile blend composition emitted by maize damaged by the different caterpillars. Our results showed that D. luteipes innately uses nocturnal herbivore-induced plant volatiles to search for prey. Moreover, the attraction of the earwig to short-term damaged plants is likely mediated by fatty acid derivatives.     

Differences in functional traits between invasive and native <Emphasis Type="Italic">Amaranthus</Emphasis> species under different forms of N deposition

Differences in functional traits between invasive and native plant species are believed to determine the invasion success of the former. Increasing amounts of anthropogenic nitrogen (N) are continually deposited into natural ecosystems, which may change the relative occurrence of the different N deposition forms (such as NH₄–N, NO₃–N, and CO(NH₂)₂–N) naturally deposited. Under high N deposition scenarios, some invasive species may grow faster, gaining advantage over native species. In a greenhouse experiment, we grew invasive and native Amaranthus species from seed both alone and in competition under simulated N enriched environments with different forms of N over 3 months. Then, we measured different leaf traits (i.e., plant height, leaf length, leaf width, leaf shape index, specific leaf area (SLA), and leaf chlorophyll and N concentrations). Results showed that the competition intensity between A. retroflexus and A. tricolor decreased under N deposition. This may be due to the large functional divergence between A. retroflexus and A. tricolor under simulated N deposition. Phenotypic plasticity of SLA and leaf chlorophyll concentration of A. retroflexus were significantly lower than in A. tricolor. The lower range of phenotypic plasticity of SLA and leaf chlorophyll concentration of A. retroflexus may indicate a fitness cost for plastic functional traits under adverse environments. The restricted phenotypic plasticity of SLA and leaf chlorophyll concentration of A. retroflexus may also stabilize leaf construction costs and the growth rate. Meanwhile, the two Amaranthus species possessed greater plasticity in leaf N concentration under NO₃–N fertilization, which enhanced their competitiveness.     

Impact caps: why population,affluence and technology strategies should be abandoned

This paper classifies strategies to reduce environmental impact according to the terms of the I = PAT formula. Policies limiting resource depletion and pollution (Impact) – by heavily taxing resources or rationing them on a country basis – are thus called ‘direct’ or ‘left-side’ strategies. Other policies to achieve the environmental goal of lowering Impact strive to limit Population and Affluence, or to use Technology to lower the ratio of resource inputs to goods-and-services outputs. Next it is shown that lowering any of these ‘right-side’ factors causes or at least enables the other two to rise or ‘rebound’. This has two consequences: 1) Since I = PAT does not express these interdependencies on the right side, it is more accurately written I = f(P,A,T); and 2) Success in lowering any of the right-side factors does not necessarily lower Impact. Rationing or Pigouvian taxation of resources or pollution, on the other hand, necessarily lower impact and are therefore preferable to population, consumption and technological environmental strategies. Finally, lifestyle and technology changes towards more sufficiency and efficiency would follow the caps as consumers and producers work to retain the greatest amount of welfare within the limits given.     

Effects of SO2 on physiology,elemental content and injury development of winter wheat

The effects of sulfur dioxide on buffering capacity, chlorophyll content, stomatal conductance, mineral composition and leaf injury of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum, cv. Yecora Rojo) were studied. Plants were exposed to sulfur dioxide (0, 79, 183, and 393 μg m⁻³) in open-top chambers. Exposures were conducted in Riverside, California, during the coolest part of the year when the plants are believed to be more sensitive to sulfur dioxide than during the rest of the year. Physiological measurements, injury rating and collection of leaf material for chemical analysis were carried out after 22 days of exposure. The results of these measurements were compared with yield data from the final harvest which took place after 118 days of exposure. Elevated SO₂ concentrations caused decrease of buffering capacity, increase of total sulfur content and increase of injury of wheat leaves. These changes correlated significantly with reduction of total seed weight and weight of 100 wheat seeds at the final harvest. Stomatal conductance to water vapor, chlorophyll content and two leaf mineral concentrations (calcium, potassium) were not significantly affected by sulphur dioxide exposure. The results of this study indicated that buffering capacity, total sulfur content and injury of leaves could be used as early indicators of SO₂ stress in wheat and its subsequent yield losses.     

A new Dasypodini armadillo (Xenarthra: Cingulata) from San Gregorio Formation,Pliocene of Venezuela: affinities and biogeographic interpretations

We describe Pliodasypus vergelianus gen. et sp. nov., a Dasypodini armadillo from the middle Pliocene of Venezuela (Vergel Member, San Gregorio Formation). Although scarce, the remains are remarkable because of their geochronologic proximity to the main phase of Great American Biotic Interchange (GABI). The cladistic analysis conducted reveals that Pliodasypus groups with Dasypus and both are sister taxa of Propraopus, whereas Anadasypus is at a basal position. With respect to the records of tribe Dasypodini, after its oldest representative (Anadasypus, middle and late Miocene), the chronologically subsequent form is Pl. vergelianus (middle Pliocene), followed by Dasypus bellus in higher northern latitudes (late Pliocene), and then by widespread occurrences in the Pleistocene of North America (D. bellus) and South America (Propraopus, Dasypus punctatus, and Dasypus novemcinctus). Thus, we infer that Dasypus differentiated in the late Pliocene at low latitudes in the northern South America. It leads to two alternative hypotheses of dispersal: (a) some early Dasypus remained cryptically in South America until the Pleistocene, whereas others dispersed to North America between 2.2 and 2.7 Ma, or (b) they dispersed to North America subsequently to the emersion of the Panamanian isthmus and D. bellus differentiated there; later, during the Pleistocene, D. bellus entered South America and experienced speciation. The same process of re-ingression has been proposed to other xenarthrans, breaking with the traditional assumption that the GABI was unidirectional.     

Mass releases of Aphidius rhopalosiphi (Hymenoptera: Aphidiinae), and strip management to control of wheat aphids

Biological control of cereal aphids was attempted during two years, using two approaches: (1) mass-release of Aphidius rhopalosiphi (21,000 individuals/ha) in May and (2) use of a clover-ryegrass strip as a parasitoid reservoir. Two aphid species (Metopolophium festucae and Acyrtosiphon pisum) considered as alternative hosts for cereal aphid parasitoids occurred in the grassy strips. Three fields for each of the mass release or strip management were compared in 2000 with two control fields where no aphid control was done. Aphid population growth was significantly reduced under both mass release and management compared to controls. There was no significant difference between the two treatments. Yet, the parasitism rates were significantly higher under mass release and strip management than in the controls. In 2001, three fields per treatment were compared with three controls. Aphid numbers were very low in all fields, strip management being the only treatment to slow down aphid population growth.     

Occurrence of <Emphasis Type="Italic">myo</Emphasis>-inositol and alkyl-substituted polysaccharide in the prey-trapping mucilage of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosera capensis</Emphasis>

The chemical composition of the exudate mucilage droplets of the carnivorous plant Drosera capensis was investigated using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The mucilage was found to contain beside a very large molecular weight polysaccharide a significant amount of myo-inositol. It appears that myo-inositol escaped detection due to the commonly applied methodology on the chemical analysis of plant mucilage, such as dialysis, precipitation of polysaccharide component with alcohol, acid hydrolysis and detection of the resultant monosaccharide (aldose) units. The possible functions of myo-inositol in the mucilage droplets and the fate after being washed off from the leaf tentacles are proposed. On the polysaccharide component, the presence of methyl ester and alkyl chain-like moieties could be confirmed. These lipophilic moieties may provide the prey-trapping mucilage with the unique adhesive property onto the hydrophobic insect body parts, as well as onto the nature’s well-known superhydrophobic surfaces such as the leaves of the sacred lotus plants. A re-evaluation of the mineral components of the mucilage, reported 40 years ago, is presented from the viewpoints of the current result and plants’ natural habitat. A case for re-examination of the well-studied plant mucilaginous materials is made in light of the new findings.     

原位生物修复提高多环芳烃污染土壤农用安全性

为了减少多环芳烃(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,PAHs)在作物体内的富集,降低食源性PAHs对人类的潜在风险,提高PAHs污染土壤的农用安全性,在受到PAHs污染的麦田中施用类球红细菌(Rhodobacter sphaeroide)菌剂(RS)进行原位修复.以叶面喷施(B)和根部喷施(D)50倍稀释的RS两种方式处理,以喷施等量清水的处理为对照(A),不做任何处理的麦田为空白(CK),从小麦苗期开始处理,到小麦成熟期测定了土壤和小麦籽粒中PAHs含量以及根际土壤微生物群落结构的变化,探讨了施用RS对PAHs污染土壤的强化修复作用.结果表明,施加RS的B区、D区与空白(CK)区相比,标识土壤微生物的磷脂脂肪酸(PLFAs)种类均有29.6%变异率;土壤PAHs的去除率分别提高了1.59倍和1.68倍;富集因子分别降低了58.9%和62.2%;50穗小麦籽粒的干重分别提高了8.95%和12.5%.RS的施用改变了土壤微生物群落结构,活化了土壤微生物的代谢活性,从而加快了土壤PAHs的降解;同时,RS的施用也降低了PAHs在小麦籽粒的富集量,提高了小麦的产量,显示出RS在提高PAHs污染土壤的农用安全性方面具有应用潜力.     

Ecological consistency across space: a synthesis of the ecological aspects of Dromiciops gliroides in Argentina and Chile

Dromiciops gliroides is an arboreal marsupial found in the temperate forests of South America (36–43 °S). This species is the sole extant representative of the order Microbiotheria, and is a key seed disperser of many native plant species, including the keystone mistletoe Tristerix corymbosus. Here, we synthesized the current knowledge on the ecological aspects of this species, and compared the available information from Argentina and Chile. Population density (23?±?2 (mean ± SE) individual/ha) and home range (1.6?±?0.6?ha) appear to be relatively similar across a marked ecological gradient in the mainland, but lower densities (7?±?2 individual/ha) and smaller home ranges (0.26?±?0.04?ha) were detected at island sites. We detected regional variation in body condition in Chile, but there were no significant differences across a wider E-W gradient. Movement patterns fit a random walk model; such behavior might have important consequences in shaping plant’s spatial patterns. Although our data suggest that D. gliroides is more tolerant to habitat disturbance than previously thought, its incapability to disperse across non-forested areas suggests that the rapid rate of habitat loss and fragmentation that characterizes southern temperate forests likely poses a serious threat to this species. These ecological similarities are surprising given that forests studied receive dramatically different rainfall and correspond to distinct forest types. The evidence synthetized here dispels some of the myths about this species but also stresses the need for more comprehensive ecological studies across its distribution range.     

Recent and future development of emissions of nitrogen oxides in Europe

An emission inventory for all of Europe shows that between 1980 and 1985 NO_x emissions almost stabilized as a consequence of structural changes in the energy consumption. This paper analyzes potential future emissions of nitrogen oxides for the hypothetical case of no control measures being applied and the effects of the reduction commitments made in the ‘Sofia Protocol’ and the ‘Declaration on a 30% cut’ of NO_x emissions in Europe. Finally, the costs for implementing the committed emission reductions are assessed.