Impact of variable nitrogen fertilisation on arthropods in cotton in Georgia, USA

Reducing fertiliser applications can reduce production costs for cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) growers, as well as nitrogen (N) leaching into the soil and contamination of surface and ground water. But altered N fertilisation may also affect pests and their natural enemies. In this study, plots with four different levels of fertiliser input (0, 45, 90 and 135 kg ha⁻¹ N) were used to investigate the influence of N on cotton pest and beneficial arthropod populations, and on cotton yield in Tifton, GA, USA. We predicted that (1) N fertilisation will correlate positively with cotton plant growth; (2) increased N fertilisation will increase pest populations because plants with more N will be more nutritious for and attractive to herbivores; (3) populations of beneficial arthropods and predation of pests will decline with increased N fertilisation because of reduced plant signaling; (4) increased N fertilisation will increase pest mortality due to parasitoids because of increased host quality. Cotton plant growth was enhanced by N fertilisation but yield was unaffected. N fertilisation significantly affected some pest arthropods but inconsistently. Mirids were most abundant in the high N treatment in 1 year of the study and cotton aphids were most abundant in the highest N treatment in the other year of the study. Arthropod predators were generally more abundant in the high N treatment but only spiders and Geocoris spp. were significantly affected by N treatment, with highest numbers present in the highest N treatment but the significant differences were each only in a single year. The greatest mortality of sentinel pest eggs (Spodoptera exigua) due to predation occurred under low N conditions. N fertilisation had no significant effects on parasitism of feral or sentinel caterpillars.     

Insecticide and tillage effects on pest and non-pest arthropods in corn agroecosystems

Effects of carbamate and organophosphate insecticides, tillage and previous cropping history on pest and non-target soil arthropods in corn are reported. Also, degradation patterns of organophosphate insecticide were quantified in plowed and no-tillage systems. Overall, tillage and cropping sequence had greater effects on arthropod communities than did insecticide treatments. Rootworm (Diabrotica sp.) damage was less in no-tillage than in plowed systems. There was no significant difference between insecticides in affecting rootworm damage. The organophosphate-treated corn had less black cutworm (Agrostis ipsilon) damage than did the carbamate-treated corn. Cryptostigmata mite density was highest in no-tillage systems. In contrast, non-cryptostigmata mite density was highest in fallow—plowed systems. The carbamate insecticide had a greater negative effect on overall mite density than did the organophosphate compound. With respect to soil macroarthropods, herbivore numbers were highest in plowed systems and lowest in no-tillage systems. Spider numbers were highest in the no-tillage systems. The organo-phosphate insecticide degraded more rapidly in the no-tillage compared to the plowed systems; however, this difference did not appear to affect arthropod numbers.     

Effects of residue harvesting on water runoff,soil erosion and nutrient loss

The effect of corn (rZea mays L.) stover harvest on water funoff, soil erosion and nutrient transport under a reudced tillaage and no-till plant system was investigated in the northwestern Corn Belt (U.S.A.). Increased levels of corn stover harvest resulted in increased water runoff and soil erosion. Nutrient removal from the cropping system generally exceeded standard fertilization practices when either high levels of corn stover were harvested or soil erosion levels approached the soil loss tolerance levekl of 11.2 tons ha⁻¹ year⁻¹.     

Influence of hedgerow and grassy field borders on ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) activity in fields of corn

Agricultural landscapes may be manipulated in ways that benefit predatory invertebrates by providing alternate food sources, overwintering sites, and refuge from farming activities. Ecological theory predicts that complex plant communities should support a richer community of natural enemies of pest insects than a simple plant community. A study was conducted in Iowa, USA to investigate the influence of the vegetative diversity of field boarders on the activity, species richness, and community similarities of predatory beetles occurring in corn fields.Ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) populations were compared among corn fields bounded by either complex hedges or simple grass edges. Directional pitfall traps were used to investigate activity patterns of beetles between border types and their adjacent corn fields. Beetles were trapped during four seasonal periods, based on the growth stage of corn. During corn emergence (May–June) when fields are barren, carabids were more active and species richness was higher in the corn fields bordered by woody hedges. The carabid species Scarites quadriceps, Scarites subterraneus, and Harpalus pensylvanicus, were more dominant in hedge sites as compared to grass sites at this time. Following corn–canopy closure, carabids were now more active in fields bordered by grassy edges, but beetle activity also remained high in the fields adjacent to woody hedges. Further analysis of the carabid communities by Bray–Curtis Similarity Index showed no difference among field edge types at any time of the season. Results indicate that both complex and simple field border habitats support abundant and diverse populations of carabids during most of the growing season. However, during the early growing season hedges appear to be more important than grass edges in supplying carabid beetles to corn fields. Woody hedges may serve as very important overwintering sites and as an early season refuge for predatory beetles in corn.     

城市污泥中温厌氧消化中挥发性脂肪酸(VFA)对肠道病原菌的杀灭机理

为探讨污泥中温厌氧消化（MAD）过程中挥发性脂肪酸（VFA）对肠道病原菌的杀灭机理,在连续流污泥MAD反应器中,研究了两种pH条件下VFA对埃希氏大肠杆菌（E.coli）、沙门氏菌（Salmonella spp.）和志贺氏菌（Shigella spp.）杀灭的影响.结果发现,中性条件下（pH≈7）,污泥中大肠杆菌和沙门氏菌数量经厌氧消化处理后明显下降,均下降了2个数量级,但VFA浓度为1000～6000mg·L-1时大肠杆菌和沙门氏菌的杀灭效果差别不明显.在pH酸性条件下（pH≈5）,高浓度VFA反应器中污泥的大肠杆菌、沙门氏菌和志贺氏菌数量分别下降了3、6和2个数量级,达到污泥A级标准.对于纯培养的大肠杆菌和沙门氏菌,在VFA浓度8000mg·L-1、pH=5条件下培养6d后病原菌浓度低于检测限.结果表明,VFA对污泥厌氧消化中病原菌的杀灭效应与未解离状态的VFA浓度密切相关,高浓度VFA、低pH时,未解离态VFA浓度增加,从而提高病原菌杀灭效率.     

林丹在作物和土壤中的残留及其消解

通过不同施药方法,探讨了林丹在小麦、玉米中的残留水平。结果表明,林丹在作物中的残留量随施药量的增加而递增。采用喷雾,4(a.i.)g/亩,林丹在小麦中的残留为0.0073ppm;土壤处理,100(a.i.)g/亩,林丹在小麦中的残留为0.0134ppm;撒颗粒剂,0.015(a.i.)g/株,林丹在玉米中的残留为0.0600ppm.林丹在土壤中消解很快,当土壤处理[200(a.i.)g/亩],林丹在土壤中的半衰期为23.7～25.2d,消解99％需160d左右。作者认为,在我国部分害虫防治中起用林丹不可能对生态环境构成威胁。      

Seasonal occurrence of the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) on deepwater rice in Bangladesh and Thailand

Deepwater rice is grown in South and Southeast Asia on 11 million hectares flooded deeply during the monsoon. Surveys for the incidence of stem borers in deepwater rice in Bangladesh from 1977 to 1980, and in Thailand during 1981 and 1982, showed that borer incidence and species composition were remarkably similar. Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) usually comprised more than 90% of the borer population and was almost exclusively present during the main flooding period. Chilo polychrysus (Meyr.) comprised 11% and Sesamia inferens (Walker) 6% of the population in the pre-flood and ripening stages.Low borer activity in the early part of the season was explained by a low nucleus population, the synchronous planting of deepwater rice, and severe moisture stress and high temperatures in the pre-flood period. In Bangladesh, a severe drought in 1979 limited Scirpophaga incertulas populations to unusually low levels until the flowering stage. In Thailand, drier conditions, the lack of an intervening rice crop in the dry season and a longer pre-flood period, appeared to severely restrict early season borer activity. The onset of flooding and stem elongation provided a more favourable environment for S. incertulas. Borer activity increased steadily during the first 3–4 months of flooding, to average 23% damaged stems (26 m^?2) and 13 borer immature stages/100 stems (13 m^?2) by the flowering stage. Borer activity continued at about the same level as the water receded, to reach maximum annual levels of 38–44% damaged stems (35 m^?2) at the late-ripening stage. At harvest, 60% of the fields were at outbreak level (>40% damaged stems). Such high levels of damage are explained by the long growth period of deepwater rice, favourable weather during the flooding period, and the optimum habitat of the elongated stem. S. incertulas populations then crashed to low levels; the larvae entering diapause in the field stubble. Although related to actual damage, the deadheart and whitehead symptoms grossly under-estimated the extent of stem damage.     

Predation by soil inhabiting arthropods in intercropped and monoculture agroecosystems

Experiments were carried out to determine effects of intercropping on macroarthropod predator activity, both diurnal and seasonal, and on relative consumption of lepidopteran pest larvae during a two-year study. Maize (corn, Zea mays) was intercropped into a grass-legume mixture and compared to monoculture maize. There was significantly more predator activity (number of attacks by predators on pest larvae) and predation (number of larvae consumed) in the intercropped system compared with the monocultured treatment during both years of the study. Predator activity and consumption of larvae were greatest at night in both systems and least during the day. However, the intercropped system had significantly more predator activity during each observation over a 24-h period than did the monocultured system. Predator activity and predation did not fluctuate appreciably over the early part of the growing season until August when there was a significant increase in both parameters. Carabid beetle larvae and spiders were the major predators in June, however, in July and August large carabid adults (> 15 mm) became the dominant predators. Significant correlations were found among carabid beetle activity, density estimates of macroarthropods and the number of lepidopteran larvae consumed in these corn agroecosystems. These correlations between techniques and endemic predatory arthropods indicate that predation is a significant factor in reducing pest populations in intercropped agroecosystems.     

柘林湾表层沉积物中甲藻孢囊的分布与浮游植物休眠体萌发研究

于2008年11月采集了广东柘林湾表层沉积物样品,对沉积物中的甲藻孢囊进行分类鉴定,同时对沉积物进行了直接萌发,并对萌发的浮游植物进行了定性定量分析,以了解柘林湾海域甲藻孢囊的分布状况,揭示赤潮发生潜势.研究结果显示,柘林湾海域甲藻孢囊种类多样性较低,仅分析鉴定出甲藻孢囊16种,有毒有害赤潮藻类亚历山大藻和链状裸甲藻的孢囊分布广泛.孢囊组成以异养型甲藻的孢囊占优势,其中,原多甲藻孢囊种类和密度最为丰富,显示了该海域较高的富营养化程度.孢囊密度较低,在16.59~83.37 cysts·g-1(以干重计,下同)之间,平均为39.52 cysts·g-1.空孢囊百分比均较高,平均百分比达到56.3%,说明大部分孢囊已经萌发.萌发的浮游植物种类数较少,共萌发出浮游植物26属33种,硅藻优势种类主要有拟菱形藻(Pseudonitzschia spp.)、角毛藻(Chaetoceros spp.)、中肋骨条藻(Skeletonema costatum)、圆筛藻(Coscinodiscus spp.)等.甲藻种类数较少,其中以woloszynskioid类中的Biecheleriopsis adriatica为优势甲藻.萌发的浮游植物中还出现了大量金色藻(Chrysochromulina spp.)及球形棕囊藻(Phaeocystis globaosa)等其他类别的潜在有毒种类.本研究结果表明,柘林湾海域沉积物中有毒有害赤潮藻类孢囊分布广泛,并萌发出大量的潜在有毒藻类,说明柘林湾海域具有较高的有害赤潮发生风险.     

How forest marsupials are affected by habitat degradation and fragmentation? A meta-analysis

Habitat fragmentation and degradation are important biodiversity change drivers worldwide. Their effects have been described for many animal groups, but little is known about marsupials. We conducted a meta-analysis aiming to evaluate the actual effects of habitat fragmentation and degradation on forest marsupials. From a literature survey, we obtained 85 case studies reporting disturbance comparisons. We found a negative overall effect, as well as a negative effect for habitat fragmentation, but not for habitat degradation. Marsupials from Oceania were negatively affected by habitat disturbance, whereas there was no effect for those from South America. Arboreal marsupials were negatively affected, whereas terrestrial marsupials did not. Species from the families Dasyuridae (Antechinus spp.) and Microbiotheriidae (Dromiciops gliroides) showed to be sensitive to habitat disturbance.     

Metal pollution in relation to mass outbreaks of Dendrolimus punctatus Walker on Pinus massoniana Lamb.in China

Insects with their ecological superpower have enormous capacity to transform small pollution damage in forests to full scale calamities. Acid rain resulting from extensive coal burning is the chief pollutant in China. Acid rain activates from soil deposits toxic metals, which are transferred to trees and further to insects eating them. We studied the levels of the toxic Cd, its antagonists Zn and Cu, and acid rain indicators Fe and Mn in the forest pest moth Dendrolimus punctatus Walker (Lepidoptera:Lasiocampidae) in variously polluted Pinus massoniana Lamb forests in China. The highest density of D. punctatus, as well as the highest Cd levels developed in the moderately polluted forests. Possibly Cd had there broken down the pest resistance of the pines. The paradoxical coexistence of high Cd level and elevated population density of the pest seems to result from the high accumulation of Cd in its ichneumonid parasitoid. In the most heavily polluted forests the Cd level in needles was low, possibly because the strong acid rain had washed away most of the Cd deposit in the soil. It existed there no D.punctatus population. Absence of pest insects from the most heavily polluted areas is a common phenomenon.     

城市污泥厌氧消化和脱水工艺对肠道病原菌的杀灭效应

运用最大或然数(MPN)培养法和定量PCR(qPCR)技术对不同城市污水处理厂污泥厌氧消化处理和脱水处理前后,污泥中埃希氏大肠杆菌(E.coli)、沙门氏菌(Salmonellaspp.)和志贺氏菌(Shigellaspp.)含量的变化进行了研究.MPN检测结果表明,污泥中大肠杆菌、沙门氏菌和志贺氏菌数量经厌氧消化处理后明显下降,平均下降2～5个数量级,但qPCR检测结果显示,种病原菌平均下降1～2个数量级.脱水处理3后,污泥中的肠道病原菌含量基本没有变化,没有发生脱水后再生长现象.大肠杆菌、沙门氏菌和志贺氏菌含量分别在104～107、104～105和103～105MPN·g-1(以污泥干重计)之间.MPN和qPCR检测结果之间的差异性显示厌氧消化会造成肠道病原菌的有活性但不可培养状态(VBNC),同时也提示应用传统的培养检测方法检测病原菌含量和评定污泥排放的生物安全性时需慎重.     

Effect of nitrate concentration on filamentous bulking under low level of dissolved oxygen in an airlift inner circular anoxic-aerobic incorporate reactor

This laboratory research investigated a possible cause of filamentous bulking under low level of dissolved oxygen conditions (dissolved oxygen value in aerobic zone maintained between 0.6-0.8 mgO2 /L) in an airlift inner-circular anoxic-aerobic reactor. During the operating period, it was observed that low nitrate concentrations affected sludge volume index significantly. Unlike the existing hypothesis, the batch tests indicated that filamentous bacteria (mainly Thiothrix sp.) could store nitrate temporarily under carbon restricted conditions. When nitrate concentration was below 4 mg/L, low levels of carbon substrates and dissolved oxygen in the aerobic zone stimulated the nitrate-storing capacity of filaments. When filamentous bacteria riched in nitrate reached the anoxic zone, where they were exposed to high levels of carbon but limited nitrate, they underwent denitrification. However, when nonfilamentous bacteria were exposed to similar conditions, denitrification was restrained due to their intrinsic nitrate limitation. Hence, in order to avoid filamentous bulking, the nitrate concentration in the return sludge (from aerobic zone to the anoxic zone) should be above 4 mg/L, or alternatively, the nitrate load in the anoxic zone should be kept at levels above 2.7 mg NO-3N/g SS.     

Arthropod populations,yield and damage in monocultures and polycultures of corn,beans and tomatoes

This study involved an examination of a polyculture system (corn-bean-tomato) for specific interactions that may be useful in the development of agronomic systems that are less susceptible to pest attack. The data show that the arthropods generally prefer (are found in) one cultivar more than the others, even in polycultural situations. For example Trichogramma sp. are much more active on tomatoes than on corn, while Coccinellidae are much more common on corn than on tomatoes. The data do not, for the most part, demonstrate any significant differences in insect populations, yield or damage that resulted from interplanting the various cultivars. The role of diversity in agricultural systems is also discussed.     

Comparison of soil N availability and leaching potential,crop yields and weeds in organic,low-input and conventional farming systems in northern California

Increasing dependence on off-farm inputs including, fertilizers, pesticides and energy for food and fiber production in the United States and elsewhere is of questionable sustainability resulting in environmental degradation and human health risks. The organic (no synthetic fertilizer or pesticide use), and low-input (reduced amount of synthetic fertilizer and pesticide use), farming systems are considered to be an alternative to conventional farming systems, to enhance agricultural sustainability and environmental quality. Soil N availability and leaching potential, crop yields and weeds are important factors related to agricultural sustainability and environmental quality, yet information on long-term farming system effects on these factors, especially in the organic and low-input farming systems is limited. Four farming systems: organic, low-input, conventional (synthetic fertilizer and pesticides applied at recommended rates) 4-year rotation (conv-4) and a conventional 2-year rotation (conv-2) were evaluated for soil mineral N, potentially mineralizable N (PMN), crop yields and weed biomass in irrigated processing tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) and corn (Zea mays L.) from 1994 to 1998 in California’s Sacramento Valley. Soil mineral N levels during the cropping season varied by crop, farming system, and the amount and source of N fertilization. The organic and low-input systems showed 112 and 36% greater PMN pools than the conventional systems, respectively. However, N mineralization rates of the conventional systems were 100% greater than in the organic and 28% greater than in the low-input system. Average tomato fruit yield for the 5-year period (1994–1998) was 71.0 Mg ha⁻¹ and average corn grain yield was 11.6 Mg ha⁻¹ and both were not significantly different among farming systems. The organic system had a greater aboveground weed biomass at harvest compared to other systems. The lower potential risk of N leaching from lower N mineralization rates in the organic and low-input farming systems appear to improve agricultural sustainability and environmental quality while maintaining similar crop yields.     

Subterranean clover living mulch: an alternative method of weed control

An alternative method to using herbicides in some crops may be the use of subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) as a living mulch for weed control. Subterranean clover is a self-seeding winter annual legume with a geocarpic type of growth for which it is also known as ‘subclover’. From 1986 to 1990 subterranean clover was used in our research with success in several agronomic and vegetable crops.Our initial work was with field corn (Zea mays indentata L.). Included in this experiment were treatments of subterranean clover living mulch, rye (Seacale cereale L.) dead mulch, and no-mulch. Included also were several tillage treatments superimposed on the mulch treatments. These were conventional, minimum, and no-tillage.We later included soy beans [Glycine max (L.) Merr], sweet corn (Zea mays saccharata L.) and several vegetables such as summer squash (Cucurbita pepo L.), spring cabbage (Brassica oleracea capitata L.), snap beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), and tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) in our research.We found that subterranean clover used as a living mulch in a no-tillage system provided excellent weed control in all experiments without the use of herbicides. All living mulch-tillage treatments reduced greatly weed biomass. Treatments without subterranean clover living mulch, including the conventional tillage-herbicide treated checks, had higher weed biomass. Yields of corn, sweet corn, cabbage, snap beans and tomato were not adversely affected by the subterranean clover living mulch.     

Nitrogen reduction using bioreactive thin-layer capping (BTC) with biozeolite: A field experiment in a eutrophic river

Bioreactive thin-layer capping (BTC) with biozeolite provides a potential remediation design that can sustainably treat N contamination from sediment and overlying water in eutrophic water bodies. Nitrogen (N) reduction using BTC with biozeolite was examined in a field incubation experiment in a eutrophic river in Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China. The biozeolite was zeolite with attached bacteria, including two isolated heterotrophic nitrifiers (Bacillus spp.) and two isolated aerobic denitrifiers (Acinetobacter spp.). The results showed that the total nitrogen (TN) reduction efficiency of the overlying water by BTC with biozeolite (with thickness of about 2 mm) reached a maximum (56.69%) at day 34, and simultaneous heterotrophic nitrification and aerobic denitrification occurred in the BTC system until day 34. There was a significant difference in the TN concentrations of the overlying water between biozeolite capping and control (t-test; p < 0.05). The biozeolite had very strong in situ bioregeneration ability. Carbon was the main source of nitrifier growth. However, both dissolved oxygen (DO) and carbon concentrations affected denitrifier growth. In particular, DO concentrations greater than 3 mg/L inhibited denitrifier growth. Therefore, BTC with biozeolite was found to be a feasible technique to reduce N in a eutrophic river. However, it is necessary to further strengthen the adaptability of aerobic denitrifiers through changing domestication methods or conditions.     

Are linear habitats in agrarian landscapes source areas of beneficial or pest rodents?

This study tested the hypotheses that populations of the montane vole Microtus montanus (a potential pest species) and deer mouse Peromyscus maniculatus (a potential beneficial species) in linear habitats will be (i) positively related to the type of vegetation (abundance and diversity of vascular plants) within and adjacent to those habitats; and (ii) correlated with population changes and productivity (reproductive performance, recruitment, and survival) in nearby apple (Malus domestica) orchards. Population dynamics of M. montanus and P. maniculatus were measured by intensive live-trapping from 2003 to 2006 in replicated hedgerows, riparian strips, and nearby orchards, in southern British Columbia, Canada. Hedgerows were borders between orchards, orchards and old fields, as well as orchards and natural forest. Contrary to hypothesis (i), M. montanus and P. maniculatus populations were not positively related to vegetation type within linear habitats and their adjacent crop and non-crop areas. Mean abundance and diversity of vegetation attributes were similar among linear habitats. Hypothesis (ii) was not supported for M. montanus populations in linear habitats since they did not correlate with population changes in nearby apple orchards, during a peak year in abundance. Populations of P. maniculatus were similar in abundance and other demographic variables among the linear habitats and apple orchards, and hence hypothesis (ii) was supported for this species.     

4-Aminopyridine baits on baiting lanes protect sunflower fields from blackbirds

4-Aminopyridine baits, applied by hand in 6.6-m swaths from baiting lanes, were evaluated in 1981 for protecting ripening sunflower from blackbird damage in six test fields in North Dakota, U.S.A. Paired experimental untreated units lost 4 902 kg of sunflower seed to birds during the 6-day treatment period whereas baited units lost 2 332 kg of seed or 52% less. However, untreated units also had somewhat more damage during pretreatment periods and therefore, based on ratios of pretreatment losses, observed losses on baited units were only 43.3% less than expected.Peak numbers of blackbirds damaging individual fields ranged from 5 000 to 31 000 during the test period. The species composition of feeding flocks was estimated to be 73% red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus), 20% yellow-headed blackbirds (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus), and 7% common grackles (Quiscalus quiscula). The estimated kill of 169 blackbirds was similar in composition. However, 30 of 34 birds seen giving distress displays were yellow-headed blackbirds. We found evidence that many red-wings broke the chopped corn baits before consuming them, thereby lengthening response times and contributing to lower bait effectiveness.The benefits of baiting were calculated to be only $1.75 for each $1 of cost (exclusive of labor). Nevertheless, growers would have saved about $25 worth of sunflower seed for each hour spent baiting and creating lanes.