Achievement motive and entrepreneurial orientation: a structural analysis

In this study we have attempted to assess the achievement motive of students of small business, considered as having high entrepreneurial orientations, and students of business and economics, considered as having lower entrepreneurial orientations. Based on a facet definition of achievement motive we analyzed the structure of achievement motive for both samples. As hypothesized, results reflected the three facets of achievement motive: type of confrontation, time perspective related to task performance, and behavior modality. As hypothesized, small business students were found to score higher than their business and economics colleagues on most of the achievement items. Considerable differences between the samples were found on four achievement components: the readiness to face uncertainty, calculating risk, undertaking personal responsibility, and solving problems. The discussion focused on the advantages of the multifaceted approach to achievement motive and implications for assessing it in various settings. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Achievement motive: A reconceptualization and new instrument

A questionnaire based on a facet definition of achievement motive was devised to assess achievement tendencies amongst managers. The facet definition provided guidelines for the creation of items and the formulation of hypotheses concerning the structural relations among components of achievement motive. The questionnaire was then administered to a sample of 190 middle managers in a large industrial corporation in Israel. As hypothesized, results reflected three facets of achievement motive. (1) type of confrontation. (2) time perspective of task performance and. (3) behavioural modality. Six measures formed from a combination of items related to the first two facets were found to be internally reliable. Moreover, three of these measures dealing with readiness to confront uncertainty, to solve problems and to take calculated risks were found to predict at a significant level actual manager performance. Discussion focused on a multifaceted rather than unitary approach to achievement motive and implications for assessing its relationship to performance in various settings.     

Organizational citizenship behavior in work groups: A team cultural perspective

Although researchers have often found positive relationships between organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and performance rating, very few studies have scrutinized the team contexts in which such relationships exist. This study examines how OCB influences job performance ratings within different team cultures, as measured by team collectivism and individualism. On the basis of multilevel data collected from 81 teams working at a multinational bank in Hong Kong, team collectivism and individualism were found to moderate the OCB–performance rating relationship such that OCB targeting individuals improved rated performance in highly collectivistic teams only, whereas only organizational OCB produced a significant improvement in highly individualistic teams. The implications of these findings and directions for future research directions are discussed here. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of implicit achievement motivation,expected evaluations,and domain knowledge on creative performance

This paper explores the effect of achievement motivation on creative performance. I also describe how expectations of differing types of evaluations and knowledge of the domain moderate the relationship between implicit achievement motivation and creativity. Results suggest achievement motivation, measured implicitly, is related to creative performance. Additionally, the effect of achievement motivation at the implicit level on creative performance is moderated by expectation of evaluation and domain knowledge in a three‐way interaction. The main effect for achievement motivation, assessed at the implicit level, as a predictor of creative performance holds when controlling for other factors previously tested as predictors of creativity, including a self‐report assessment achievement motivation. I conclude by discussing the implications of this research and provide suggestions for future research opportunities. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of job complexity and autonomy on cohesiveness in collectivistic and individualistic work groups: a cross‐cultural analysis

Increased job complexity and autonomy have often been associated with improved performance in work groups. This study examines the mediating effect of group cohesiveness. The moderating effects of individualism/collectivism on the relationship between job characteristics (both complexity and autonomy) and cohesiveness are also tested. The sample consists of 381 teams drawn from the Hong Kong and U.S. branches of an international bank. The findings indicate that an increase in job complexity and/or task autonomy will increase group cohesiveness, which subsequently translates to better performance. The positive effects of job complexity and autonomy on group cohesiveness are also found to be more prominent for individualistic rather than collectivistic work groups. The theoretical implications of the results and the limitations of the study are also discussed. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Political will,political skill,and political behavior

The current study used Mintzberg's (1983) conceptualization of political will and political skill to evaluate the predictors and consequences of political behavior at work. As elements of political will, we hypothesized that need for achievement and intrinsic motivation would predict the use of political behavior at work. Furthermore, we argued that political skill would moderate the relationship between political behavior and emotional labor. Data gathered from employees (N = 193) representing a wide array of organizations substantiated the proposed relationships. Specifically, need for achievement and intrinsic motivation were positively associated with political behavior. In turn, those opting to employ political behavior at work experienced a higher degree of emotional labor, but this relationship was found to operate differently at low and high levels of political skill. Specifically, emotional labor was a consequence of political behavior for those low in political skill, but emotional labor reactions from political behavior were neutralized for individuals high in political skill. Implications of these results, strengths and limitations, and directions for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The structure of work values: A cross cultural comparison

Several years ago a research project on work values was originated. The study strived to examine the relative importance of work value items and to analyze the structure of the domain for samples from various cultural environments. A facet definition of work values was suggested that provided guidelines for constructing the Work Values Questionnaire and the formulation of hypotheses regarding the structure of relationships among components of work values. Based on data collected from 2280 respondents in eight countries the hypotheses were tested by means of Guttman's Smallest Space Analysis. The results support the hypotheses. An empirical double-ordered conceptual system, a radex structure, was obtained in each of the samples reflecting the facets of the definition: modality of outcome — cognitive, affective and instrumental, and system - performance contingency — reward, resource. In terms of the issue of cultural differences the results indicate the presence of cultural differences in the rating of a limited number of specific values. These differences are only minor variations within a much broader pattern of structural similarity. The fact that essentially the same structure was obtained in eight independent samples lends substantial support to the definitional framework of work values suggested.     

Collectivistic orientation in teams: an individual and group-level analysis

With the increasing use of work teams in U.S. industry, understanding team members' collectivistic orientation toward group goals and activities is critical for developing cooperative and productive teams. Using the research on expectancy theory, self-efficacy, locus of control, and individualism–collectivism, collectivism is examined as both an individual difference variable and a group composition variable. One hundred and forty-eight individuals (comprising 33 groups) working on a complex and interdependent task comprised the research sample. Results indicated that individual difference variables of self-efficacy for teamwork, need for social approval, and positive past experience working in teams were related to self-report collectivism. Additionally, team collectivistic orientation was examined as a group composition variable and found to be related to cooperative team behaviors. In turn, these cooperative team behaviors acted as a mediator of the relationship between team collectivistic orientation and team performance. Results are discussed in terms of theory building and applied research. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The structure of personal values: a conical representation of multiple life areas

The objective of the present study was to analyze the structure of personal values. Based on previous investigations, we proposed a multifaceted definition of values from various life areas (or domains). Structural hypotheses concerning the relationships between the definitional framework and empirical observations were formulated. Using data obtained from two samples of Israeli respondents (153 business students and 146 computer personnel), the hypotheses were examined and supported. Two basic sets of components: life areas (work, religion, culture, sports, politics, and life in general which primarily concerns home and family) and modalities (material, affective, and cognitive), were distinguished and confirmed by means of factor analysis and facet analysis. A three-dimensional conical representation of the personal values domain was revealed. The structural analysis reflected several differences among the attributes of life areas, such as the obligatory or optional nature of their activities. Theoretical implications as well as suggestions for further research are outlined.     

The relationship between managerial motivation,leadership, nurse outcomes and patient satisfaction

This ex‐post facto/correlational study examines the relationships among the following variables: nurse manager motivation for power, achievement and affiliation (N=19), managerial leadership behaviors, staff nurse outcomes of job satisfaction, productivity and organizational commitment (N=221) and patient satisfaction (N=299). Results show that managerial motivation for power is negatively correlated with manager use of leadership behaviors and staff nurse job satisfaction but positively correlated with patient satisfaction. Managerial motivation for achievement is positively correlated with use of leadership behaviors as well as nurse job satisfaction, productivity and organizational commitment, and generally to patient satisfaction. Managerial motivation for affiliation reveals few significant positive or negative relationships with other variables. The researcher concludes that both power and achievement motivation of the manager influence staff and patient outcomes in health care in the 1990s. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A social identity perspective on leadership and employee creativity

This research uses a social identity analysis to predict employee creativity. We hypothesized that team identification leads to greater employee creative performance, mediated by the individual's creative effort. We hypothesized that leader inspirational motivation as well as leader team prototypicality would moderate the relationship between identification and creative effort. Consistent with these predictions, data based on 115 matched pairs of employee‐leader ratings in a research and development context showed an indirect relationship between team identification and creative performance mediated by creative effort. The analyses also confirmed the expected moderated relationships. Leader inspirational motivation enhanced the positive association between identification and creative effort, especially when leader prototypicality was high. We discuss the value of social identity analyses of employee creativity and of the integration of social identity and transformational leadership analyses. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Deciding on equity or parity: a test of situational,cultural, and individual factors

Previous cross-cultural research in distributive justice has neglected the situational and individual determinants of allocation preferences. This study incorporated the cultural value of Individualism–Collectivism (I–C), situational demands of task interdependence and system goals, and individual achievement motivation to examine their effects on the allocation decisions made by U.S. Americans and Hong Kong Chinese. It was found that the Americans and the Chinese in the study responded to situational demands in a similar fashion, i.e. equity was preferred under circumstances of low interdependence and the productivity goal whereas parity was preferred under circumstances of high interdependence and the solidarity goal. It was also found that in the U.S., I–C had no significant relation with the allocation differential (between the bonus amounts for the highest and the lowest performer), and the achievement motivation interacts with levels of interdependence and with goal priorities; in Hong Kong, both I–C and the achievement motivation related negatively to the allocation differential. Research and managerial implications for international management were discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Leadership styles and group organizational citizenship behavior across cultures

This study investigates (a) the effects of societal culture on group organizational citizenship behavior (GOCB), and (b) the moderating role of culture on the relationship between directive and supportive leadership and GOCB. Data were collected from 20 336 managers and 95 893 corresponding team members in 33 countries. Multi‐level analysis was used to test the hypotheses, and culture was operationalized using two dimensions of Hofstede ( 2001 ) and GLOBE (2004): Individualism (IDV) and power distance (PD). There was no direct relationship between these cultural dimensions and GOCB. Directive leadership had a negative relation, and supportive leadership a positive relation with GOCB. Culture moderated this relationship: Directive leadership was more negatively, and supportive behavior less positively, related to GOCB in individualistic compared to collectivistic societies. The moderating effects of societal PD were explained by societal IDV. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationships between psychological climate perceptions and work outcomes: a meta‐analytic review

In this study, meta‐analytic procedures were used to examine the relationships between individual‐level (psychological) climate perceptions and work outcomes such as employee attitudes, psychological well‐being, motivation, and performance. Our review of the literature generated 121 independent samples in which climate perceptions were measured and analyzed at the individual level. These studies document considerable confusion regarding the constructs of psychological climate, organizational climate, and organizational culture and reveal a need for researchers to use terminology that is consistent with their level of measurement, theory, and analysis. Our meta‐analytic findings indicate that psychological climate, operationalized as individuals' perceptions of their work environment, does have significant relationships with individuals' work attitudes, motivation, and performance. Structural equation modeling analyses of the meta‐analytic correlation matrix indicated that the relationships of psychological climate with employee motivation and performance are fully mediated by employees' work attitudes. We also found that the James and James ( 1989 ) PC_g model could be extended to predict the impact of work environment perceptions on employee attitudes, motivation, and performance. Despite the number of published individual‐level climate studies that we found, there is a need for more research using standardized measures so as to enable analyses of the organizational and contextual factors that might moderate the effects of psychological climate perceptions. Finally, we argue for a molar theory of psychological climate that is rooted in the psychological processes by which individuals make meaning or their work experiences. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Emotional appeal in recruitment advertising and applicant attraction: Unpacking national cultural differences

We investigated the impact of the type of emotional appeal (ego‐focused vs. other‐focused) used in recruiting advertisements on applicant attraction to firms through two experimental studies across three countries (the United States, China, and Singapore). In Study 1, we made a traditional cultural comparison between the United States and China, whose dominant cultural values are characterized by individualism and collectivism, respectively. We found applicants in the United States were more strongly attracted to firms whose recruiting advertisements were based on an ego‐focused emotional appeal, while applicants in China were more attracted to firms that used ads with an other‐focused emotional appeal. Study 2 was conducted in bicultural Singapore. We primed bicultural applicants to be either the individualistic or collectivistic aspect of their cultural heritage. Applicants with individualist priming were attracted to recruiting advertisements with an ego‐focused emotional appeal, whereas applicants with collectivist priming were attracted to advertisements with an other‐focused emotional appeal. In addition, both studies revealed that a job applicant's regulatory focus (promotion vs. prevention) mediated the influence of national culture on the relationship between type of emotional appeal and applicant attraction to firms. Practical implications and suggestions for future research also are discussed. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Task type as a moderator of positive/negative feedback effects on motivation and performance: A regulatory focus perspective

Applying Higgins' regulatory focus theory, we hypothesized that the effect of positive/negative feedback on motivation and performance is moderated by task type, which is argued to be an antecedent to situational regulatory focus (promotion or prevention). Thus, first we demonstrated that some tasks (e.g., tasks requiring creativity) are perceived as promotion tasks, whereas others (e.g., those requiring vigilance and attention to detail) are perceived as prevention tasks. Second, as expected, our tests in two studies of the moderation hypothesis showed that positive feedback increased self‐reported motivation (meta‐analysis across samples: N = 315, d = 0.43) and actual performance (N = 55, d = 0.67) among people working on promotion tasks, relative to negative feedback. Positive feedback, however, decreased motivation (N = 318, d = ?0.33) and performance (N = 55, d = ?0.37) among individuals working on prevention tasks, relative to negative feedback. These findings suggest that (a) performance of different tasks can affect regulatory focus and (b) variability in positive/negative feedback effects can be partially explained by regulatory focus and task type. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Work values: A theoretical overview and a model of their effects

Three main streams of research were identified in the field of work values. Based on a series of analyses using multidimensional techniques, the first set of studies attempted to identify the underlying factors or facets of the work values domain. A second group of investigations examined correlates of work values including antecedent and consequent variables. Finally, extensive research on differences in work values' pattern and level by culture have been reported. For purposes of integrating the diverse findings, the basic facets of the work values domain were identified and a model of their effects on behavior was suggested     

An investigation into pay valence and performance in a pay-for-performance field setting

Inconsistent findings have been reported in the few studies investigating the relationship between the perceived value of pay and incentive performance. One hundred and seventy-eight female incentive employees with a nine-week, non-judgmental performance measure responded to a developed valence of pay scale. This measure used items assessing the perceived ability of pay to address employee needs. Three factor-scales were found within these items. Support for the hypothesized positive relationship between pay valence and incentive performance was found, dependent on which of the three scales was used. These findings provide initial insight into the means by which pay, with its ability to address different needs, might provide differential employee motivation and performance levels. This study and future research issues are discussed.     

The relations of personality and cognitive styles on job and class performance

This research examines the relations of the cognitive factors of beliefs and fears proposed by Price (1982) with the revised Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS) factors of achievement striving and impatience-irritability as well as the outcome measures of job and class performance. Results provide support for Spence, Helmreich, and Pred (1987), and Spence, Pred, and Helmreich's (1989) findings of the positive association between achievement striving and class performance but provide limited support for Price's (1982) model.     

工业生产粉尘爆炸预防和缓解──近期研究与发展综述

本文包括三个方面，即工业粉爆的基础研究、应用研究以及粉尘点人性和可爆性。基础研究包括粉尘云的形成和点火，火焰的传播以及粉煤产生的冲击波。工业预防措施包括惰化和消除点火源。缓解的方法包括隔爆、泄爆、部分惰化、抑爆和全封闭。基础研究和应用研究相互促进。计算机模拟模型可能成为非常有效的方法，也可用于专家系统。