Practical experience with the management of a cholera outbreak in a refugee cAMP in eastern Sudan, 1985

From May to November 1985 most refugee camps in Eastern Sudan were affected by cholera. This article summarizes the experience from the refugee camp Wad Sherife with the emphasis on the practical aspects of management of cholera in a refugee context. Paramedical personnel from the refugee community were used to a great extent both in curative and preventive measures. The home visitors played an important role in the early detection of the cases and in trying to prevent the spread of cholera in the camp. A total of 1793 cases were admitted during a three month period. The results show a case fatality rate of 1.8%. A significantly higher number of women were affected in the age group 15–44. As seen in other refugee camps in Eastern Sudan, there was a relatively high intravenous fluid consumption with an average of about 6 litres in adults.     

Completion of recommended WUI fire mitigation measures within urban households in Edmonton,Canada

The purpose of this study was to examine completion of recommended wildland—urban interface (WUI) fire mitigation measures by residents adjacent to the heavily vegetated North Saskatchewan river valley and ravine system in the City of Edmonton, Alberta. A mail survey was distributed to a random sample of households adjacent to this natural area. Almost all homeowners were found to be completing some recommended mitigation measures and in many cases were willing to complete most but not all of the measures that they had not yet completed, despite mixed motivations to act. Perceived responsibility for reducing risks, social bonds, beliefs that emergency services would protect homeowners' property in the event of a fire, and perceptions of the effectiveness of recommended mitigation measures, were not significantly related to completion of a higher average number of recommended mitigation measures. Importantly, most mitigation measures were completed for reasons other than WUI fire mitigation. The implications of these results and recommendations for emergency managers and communicators are discussed.     

Cholera in Sudan: An account of an epidemic in a refugee camp in eastern Sudan, May-June 1985

In 1985 cholera has been a serious problem in the horn of Africa, particularly affecting the many famine victims and refugees in that region. In this paper the history of cholera in Africa is briefly summarized, as is the background to the current refugee situation in eastern Sudan. A cholera epidemic involving 1,175 cases in two adjacent refugee camps in eastern Sudan is described. In this epidemic there were thirteen inpatient deaths and thirty-eight known home deaths from cholera. The management of the epidemic is described in detail. Overall an average of 8 1. of intravenous fluid was used per case, a higher figure than was anticipated, probably because of the unexpected degree of vomiting and the shortage of trained nursing staff.
The relationship between cholera and malnutrition is explored and hypochlorhydria is suggested as the main reason for the increased susceptibility to cholera among malnourished populations. It was observed that severely malnourished adults and children appeared to nave less severe diarrhoea with their cholera, presumably because of reduced mucosal surface area and poor enterocyte function. Finally possible means of aborting cholera epidemics are discussed.     

Container contamination as a possible source of a diarrhoea outbreak in Abou Shouk camp, Darfur province, Sudan

Diarrhoea is one of the five major causes of death in an emergency setting and one of the three main causes of death in children (Curtis and Cairncross, 2003). In June 2004, an outbreak of shigellosis was confirmed in Abou Shouk camp in the Northern Darfur province of Sudan. As water testing showed no contamination, it was assumed that post-collection contamination was happening. The decision was taken to launch a programme of mass disinfection of all water containers in order to break the contamination cycle. Diarrhoea figures from the clinics showed a fall in cases following the cleaning campaign. It is extremely difficult to obtain good and statistically rigorous data in an emergency setting, the priority being to intervene rapidly to prevent further cases of diarrhoea. However, the results do appear to indicate that the disinfection programme has had an impact on the prevalence of bloody and watery diarrhoea.     

Evaluation of a population mobility,mortality, and birth surveillance system in South Kivu,Democratic Republic of the Congo

Prospective, community-based surveillance systems for measuring birth, death, and population movement rates may have advantages over the ‘gold-standard’ retrospective household survey in humanitarian contexts. A community-based, monthly surveillance system was established in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo, in partnership with a local implementing partner and the national ministry of health. Data were collected on the occurrence of births, deaths, arrivals, and departures over the course of one year, and a retrospective survey was conducted at the end of the period to validate the information. Discrepancies between the two approaches were resolved by a third visit to the households with discordant records. The study found that the surveillance system was superior in terms of its specificity and sensitivity in measuring crude mortality and birth rates as compared to the survey, demonstrating the method's potential to measure accurately important population-level health metrics in an insecure setting in a timely, community-acceptable manner.     

Health implications of the Tumaco earthquake, Colombia, 1979

A retrospective study of the effects of the Tumaco earthquake of 1979 shows a smaller number of deaths and injuries than in earthquakes of similar magnitude that have occurred elsewhere, which is probably related to the type of building. Most of the deaths were caused by a tsunami. Proportionally the mortality was higher in the 0 to 4 age group. Among the injured, most of the lesions were minor. Morbidity was higher in the over 45 years age group, and lower among the "under-fives." There was an evident need for a simple "disaster medical record card." Coordination among the different relief agencies could have been better.     

Volatile Organic Compounds in Ambient Air at Four Residential Locations in Seoul, Korea

To investigate the environmental behavior of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in urban areas, their concentrations were measured at four urban monitoring sites (namely, N, S, E, and W) in Seoul, Korea (February to December 2009). A total of 27 compounds were quantified that consist of four chemical groups: aromatic (AR), halogenated aromatic, halogenated paraffin, and halogenated olefin. Results were evaluated by focusing on these four functional groups just mentioned and their summation term as total VOC (TVOC) along with several individual species (mainly AR species, that is, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene). The highest concentration of chemical groups was found from AR (71.1±42.1?ppbC), while that for individual species confirmed the dominance of toluene (7.48±3.88?ppb). The analysis of spatial distribution indicated that high TVOC levels were recorded at sites N and W, while it was not so significant such as S and E in terms of TVOC budget. Seasonal variation of these VOCs was characterized by the peak values in December to reflect the combined effects of pronounced source activities and meteorological conditions. Analysis of spatial variations in VOC levels between the four urban sites indicated that their distributions are tightly affected by local source processes in each area.     

I will not go,I cannot go: cultural and social limitations of disaster preparedness in Asia,Africa, and Oceania

While much work has been invested in addressing the economic and technical basis of disaster preparedness, less effort has been directed towards understanding the cultural and social obstacles to and opportunities for disaster risk reduction. This paper presents local insights from five different national settings into the cultural and social contexts of disaster preparedness. In most cases, an early warning system was in place, but it failed to alert people to diverse environmental shocks. The research findings show that despite geographical and typological differences in these locations, the limitations of the systems were fairly similar. In Kenya, people received warnings, but from contradictory systems, whereas in the Philippines and on the island of Saipan, people did not understand the messages or take them seriously. In Bangladesh and Nepal, however, a deeper cultural and religious reasoning serves to explain disasters, and how to prevent them or find safety when they strike.     

桥梁吊索高强钢丝疲劳裂纹扩展试验与数值模拟

反复车辆荷载作用下,斜拉桥斜拉索及拱桥吊杆疲劳损伤问题日益严重。针对大跨桥梁中常用的镀锌高强钢丝,开展了应力比R分别为0.1、0.2、0.3的疲劳裂纹扩展试验,研究了应力比及应力幅对钢丝疲劳裂纹扩展性能的影响,每种应力比下的应力幅分别为140.4、152.1、163.8、175.5MPa。采用分步加载方法,设计不同加载应力幅在试件断裂面留下裂纹扩展时的条纹特征,利用光学显微镜对疲劳断口的疲劳条纹进行观测,得到了不同应力比下裂纹扩展深度与疲劳循环次数的a—N曲线,拟合了高强钢丝的疲劳裂纹扩展速率模型。试验结果表明:钢丝疲劳裂纹呈三阶段扩展,随着应力比R的增大,Paris公式中参数C变小,m变大。运用有限元软件ABAQUS模拟了裂纹扩展过程,定量分析了裂纹扩展径向与表面方向的关系,试验结果与有限元结果吻合较好。试验得到的疲劳裂纹扩展速率曲线,可用于大跨桥梁吊索的抗疲劳、防断裂设计及疲劳寿命评估。     

Tsunami mortality and displacement in Aceh province, Indonesia

A survey of 388 Indonesian households displaced by the December 2004 tsunami was conducted in Aceh province in February 2005. Of tsunami-displaced households in Aceh Barat and Nagan Raya districts, 61.8 per cent reported one or more family members as dead or missing due to the tsunami, with an overall mortality rate of 13.9 per cent (95% confidence interval (CI): 12.4-15.4). Risk of death was greatest in the youngest and oldest age groups, and among females. Overall, 36 per cent of tsunami-displaced households indicated an intention to return to their original community within three months, and displaced households residing in host communities were 2.2 (95% CI: 1.2-2.8) times more likely to state an intention to return to their original villages or another community as those residing in camps. The tsunami recovery effort should focus on strategies that facilitate either prompt return or permanent, voluntary relocation for those displaced.     

Nonmethane Hydrocarbons in Ambient Air of Hazy and Normal Days in Foshan, South China

A first study of nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) on hazy and normal days was performed in Foshan for providing deep insight into the local deteriorating air quality. Ethane, propane, i-pentane, ethene, propene, ethyne, benzene, and toluene were eight most abundant compounds, accounting for 71%-85% of total NMHCs. Most hydrocarbons showed much higher levels on hazy days than normal days together with hydrocarbon/ethyne ratios and diurnal variations, indicating hazy days are more dominated by vehicular emission. Correlation coefficients (R(2)) of ethane, propane, ethane, propene, benzene, and total NMHCs with ethyne were 0.62-0.83, indicating these compounds are mainly related to vehicular emission. R(2) analysis indicated that solvent usage is responsible for toluene and other aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., ethylbezene). Benzene/toluene (B/T) ratio was 0.44±0.23 during whole sampling periods, again indicating vehicular emission is the dominant source. Lower B/T ratio (0.30±0.14) on hazy days than that (0.58±0.21) on normal days suggested that solvent usage emitted toluene.     

The 1928 Eruption of Mount Etna Volcano, Sicily, and the Destruction of the Town of Mascali

In November 1928 there was an eruption of Mount Etna, Sicily, which led to lava largely destroying the town of Mascali, situated low on the eastern flank of the volcano. Destruction of the town took just over a day but there was an orderly evacuation of its inhabitants and, with help from the military, families were able to remove furniture and fittings from their houses. Evacuees were relocated to nearby towns staying with relatives, friends or in hired apartments. Rebuilding Mascali provided an opportunity for the fascist government of the time to demonstrate efficient centralised planning. A completely new town was built on a grid-iron plan with many of the buildings reflecting the 'fascist architecture' of the time. The town was complete by 1937 and housing condztzons were very advanced in comparison with other towns in the region. The 1928 eruption is important as it was the most destructive on Etna since 1669 when the city of Catania was overwhelmed. In terms of hazard and risk assessment the 1928 eruption demonstrates that lava can reach the lower flanks of the volcano within a short period after the onset of an eruption.     

Climate variability,political crises,and historical population displacements in Ethiopia

Abstract

El Niño events from the 1970s through the 1990s caused extended droughts in Ethiopia. These droughts were followed by famine and political turmoil that resulted in radical changes of government, secession, and a massive program of population redistribution. Cartographic analysis of Ethiopian census data from 1984 and 1994 shows changes in demographic patterns. The consequences of government-imposed migration policies, whose catalyst was the climate variability caused by repeated El Niño events, were changes in the ethnic composition of certain Ethiopian regions and changes in the geographic pattern of population growth.     

Land use and land cover dynamics in the Keleta watershed,Awash River basin,Ethiopia

Unprecedented pace and magnitude of land use/land cover (LULC) change in the Ethiopian highlands is a key problem threatening the natural ecosystem and creates vulnerability to an environmental hazard. A combination of remote sensing, field observations and focus group discussions were used to analyze the dynamics and drivers of LULC change from 1985 to 2011 in the Keleta watershed, Ethiopia. Supervised image classification was used to map LULC classes. Focus group discussions and ranking were used to explain the drivers and causes linked to the changes. The result showed rapid expansion of farmland and settlement (36%), shrublands cover shrinking by 50%, while the size of degraded land increased by 45%. Rapid population growth, rainfall variability and soil fertility decline, lack of fuelwood and shortage of cultivation land were ranked as the main causes of LULC change in the watershed according to the focus group discussion. Further effort is needed to improve the creation of new job opportunity, promotion of improved technologies to boost productivity and soil fertility, provide credit facility, extra push on irrigation infrastructure development and soil, water and natural ecosystem conservation practices. Generally, better community-based land resource management will need to ensure sustainable rural livelihoods.     

自然灾害的物元分析灾情评估模型初探

本文提出了用物元分析进行灾情评估的新方法。该方法将灾情划分为三类,计算每项评估指标对各类灾情的关联函数,采用指数超标法计算各项指标的权值,然后应用加权公式计算全部指标对各类灾情的综合关联程度,并根据评价标准对灾情作出评估。该方法应用于45个灾情个例评估结果与用灾度判别法评估结果比较表明其用于灾情评估具有科学性和实用性。     

Connectedness, social support and internalising emotional and behavioural problems in adolescents displaced by the Chechen conflict

The study investigated factors associated with internalising emotional and behavioural problems among adolescents displaced during the most recent Chechen conflict. A cross-sectional survey (N=183) examined relationships between social support and connectedness with family, peers and community in relation to internalising problems. Levels of internalising were higher in displaced Chechen youth compared to published norms among non-referred youth in the United States and among Russian children not affected by conflict. Girls demonstrated higher problem scores compared to boys. Significant inverse correlations were observed between family, peer and community connectedness and internalising problems. In multivariate analyses, family connectedness was indicated as a significant predictor of internalising problems, independent of age, gender, housing status and other forms of support evaluated. Sub-analyses by gender indicated stronger protective relationships between family connectedness and internalising problems in boys. Results indicate that family connectedness is an important protective factor requiring further exploration by gender in war-affected adolescents.     

Health response to a large and rapid influx of Albanian refugees in southern Italy, 1991

Over a two-day period in March 1991, more than 23,000 Albanian refugees arrived without warning in the southern Italian port of Brindisi. A simple surveillance system was established within days of their arrival to monitor health problems that were expected to have a high frequency, were of concern to the Italian health care system because of potential spread to the local population, and were susceptible to therapeutic or preventive measures. The most commonly encountered health problems were pediculosis and scabies. Despite poor sanitary conditions, only one outbreak of gastrointestinal disease was reported. Obstetric events were common, and many resulted in adverse outcomes. Hospitalization rates were high, although in the early weeks of the emergency, many were unwarranted. This experience demonstrates the value of a simple, rapid surveillance system in prioritizing health problems and preventing rumors. In future, greater emphasis should be placed on outpatient management of simple medical problems.     

Sri Lankan livelihoods after the tsunami: searching for entrepreneurs,unveiling relations of power

This paper analyses the performance of aid‐funded livelihoods recovery efforts in Sri Lanka following the Indian Ocean tsunami of 26 December 2004, with special attention paid to the effects on the rural poor. It argues that successful livelihoods recovery was hampered by an excessive focus by aid agencies on entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship, and by the lack of a politically informed understanding of the economy. Based on ethnographic and survey‐based research, the study demonstrates that the category of ‘entrepreneur’ is misleading for large parts of the economy. Indeed, the desire to build an entrepreneurial economy actually hampered successful livelihoods recovery in Sri Lanka and, in some cases, reinforced inequitable relations of power. The paper concludes that for livelihoods recovery programmes to be effective, they must be founded on an understanding of the relations of power that constitute the economy; these relations operate across scales, and are historically and geographically specific.     

An exploratory comparison of disasters, riots and terrorist acts

One question that emerged following the 11 September attacks was how to categorise and classify the event within existing disaster and conflict-event research frameworks. A decade ago, Quarantelli (1993) compared findings on the similarities and differences between consensus- and conflict-type events by illustrating a conceptual distinction between the two. In this paper, this discussion is expanded to include terrorist attacks by offering comparisons from research findings following 11 September. We provide analyses of individual, organisational, and community-level behaviour in crisis situations and suggest how 11 September is both similar to, and differs from, consensus- and conflict-type events as they were previously considered. Applications for emergency management are also suggested.     

Snow-avalanche hazards, Southern Glacier National Park, Montana: The nature of local knowledge and individual responses

A survey was conducted of well-educated residents of East Glacier Park, Montana, who are frequently isolated by snow avalanches. It showed that people in this area do not alter driving habits during times of avalanche danger, are not aware of the local avalanche warning system, and have not efficiently garnered information about the avalanche hazard.