锌、镉复合污染对重金属蓄集植物黑麦草养分吸收及锌、镉积累的影响

采用根袋盆栽试验研究了锌、镉单一及复合污染对重金属蓄集植物黑麦草(Lolium perenne L．)生长、养分吸收及锌、镉积累的影响．结果表明,锌、镉单一及复合污染对黑麦草生物量存在不同程度的抑制作用．锌、镉单一及复合污染均明显降低了黑麦草植株N、P、K含量,以锌、镉复合污染对植株养分吸收的抑制作用最大．锌、镉污染共存下,黑麦草对锌、镉的吸收为协同效应．黑麦草吸收的锌、镉主要集中在地上部,以锌、镉复合污染植株对锌、镉的蓄集量最大,其地上部锌、镉含量分别达到3108．72、73．97 mg·kg-1．     

Cadmium accumulation by green algae Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kutz. (Chlorophyta) in presence of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (L.)

Accumulation of metals by aquatic organisms is mostly affected by other biological components in environments. In this study, cadmium (Cd) accumulation in green algae, Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kutz., exposed to 0.1 and 1.0 mg L^?1 of Cd for 15 and 30 days was examined in laboratory conditions in the presence of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (L.). The green algae C. glomerata accumulated Cd concentrations as 690 ± 70 and 3430 ± 470 mg kg^?1 on day 15, and 1130 ± 180 and 6830 ± 1540 mg kg^?1 on day 30. There were significant increases (p < 0.05) in metal accumulation by green algae as the exposure time and metal concentration increased. The results also indicated that the presence of Nile tilapia in the medium led to a significant Cd accumulation in the green algae compared to control (p < 0.05).     

Influence of lead on growth and nutrient accumulation in canola (Brassica napus L.) cultivars

Canola (Brassica napus L.) is commonly used as a hyper-accumulator for phytoextraction of heavy metals from soil and water. Like many other heavy metals, lead (Pb) contaminates soil, water and air and thus it is a great problem. This study was conducted to investigate toxic effects of Pb on growth and nutrient uptake in four canola cultivars. Each of four cultivars of canola (Con-II, Con-III, Legend and Shiralee) was subjected to four levels of Pb (0, 30, 60 and 90 mg Pb kg(-1) of soil) from lead chloride [PbCl2]. Due to Pb toxicity, plant growth was adversely affected and relatively a severe reduction in root biomass (45.7%) was recorded. The Pb accumulation increased both in shoot and root, the highest being in root. The uptake of different nutrients, i.e., N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu and Mn was reduced (38.4, 32.8, 33.1, 49.6, 7.78, 52.0, 42.6 and 45.9%, respectively) in the shoots and that of N, Fe, Zn, and Cu in the roots (48.5, 33.2, 24.3 and 44.8%, respectively) of all canola cultivars. The root K, P, Zn and Mn and shoot P, Mg and Fe contents were less affected, the concentration of Pb, Ca and Mg in roots of all cultivars. Among canola cultivars Con-II and Con-III performed better than Legend and Shiralee in terms of growth (26.03%) and nutrient accumulation. Overall, plant growth and nutrient accumulation in the canola cultivars was hampered due to the presence of Pb.     

Infectivity and efficacy of Glomus aggregatum and growth response of Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. in flyash amended sterile soil

In the present investigation a pot culture experiment was conducted using sterile, phosphorus deficient soil to study the effect of flyash at 3 different concentrations (10g, 20g and 30g flyash/kg soil) on the infectivity and effectiveness of VAM fungus Glomus aggregatum in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) cv Maruti. The flyash amendment in soil at all the 3 different concentrations was found to affect significantly the intensity of VAM fungal colonization inside the plant roots and also suppressed the formation of VAM fungal structure (vesicles and arbuscules) completely at higher concentration (30g flyash/kg soil). The response of the pigeonpea plants, as judged by their higher and dry weight, under the influence of flyash amendment in VAM fungus infested soils was found to be considerably less (though not significant enough) when compared to the control plants (without flyash) that have otherwise shown significant increase in growth over the plants without Glomus aggregatum inoculation. However, flyash amendment without VAM inoculation was also found to enhance the growth of plants as compared to control plants (without flyash and VAM inoculum).     

Survival and growth of transplants of laboratory raised axenic seedlings of Enhalus acoroides (L.f.) Royle and field-collected plants of Syringodium isoetifolium (Aschers.) Dandy, Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Aschers. and Halodule pinifolia (Miki) den Hartog

Experimental transplantation investigations, using laboratory raised axenic seedlings of Enhalus acoroides and natural populations of Syringodium isoetifolium, Thalassia hemprichii and Halodule pinifolia in the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve, found that the denuded seagrass ecosystem of this Gulf can effectively be restored with plug and turfs methods of seagrass transplantation. Axenically developed E. acoroides, transplanted by the staples method, established by adapting to the prevailing environmental conditions. 0% seedlings “washed ashore” when the staples method was adopted using ‘L’ shaped bamboo sticks for transplanting E. acoroides and S. isoetifolium seedlings. This suggests that the seagrass transplantation using “L” shaped bamboo sticks, as staples will be technically feasible and eco-friendly for future seagrass transplantation programmes. Substratum type, duration of low tide exposure and environmental parameters like surface water temperature and turbidity are key parameters determining the success of the transplantation attempts.     

Effects of manganese waste on growth,nodulation, proline levels,and enzymatic activities in Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.

Phytoremediation studies were carried out on the waste of Kalakhunta manganese (Mn) mines located in Banswara, Rajasthan, which is rich in Mn and iron. Various treatments, including the addition of soil, farmyard manure, sawdust, and biogas slurry, as well as differing quantities of NPK and capping with 10% soil were undertaken to ameliorate the effects of inhospitable waste. The effect of unamended and variously treated amended waste was studied on the growth, nodulation, yield, leaf area, and enzymatic activity of the test plants to ascertain the degree of toxicosis that plants may encounter during the process of phytostabilization. The levels of proline and activities of polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, acid phosphatase, and nitrate reductase were affected by the treatments applied. Data showed that addition of 10% soil + 3 NPK is the most suitable treatment for the purpose of revegetation of Mn-mine waste, as the plants displayed the highest growth under this treatment condition.     

Evaluation of growth potential of Crimean juniper (Juniperus excelsa Bieb.) seedlings for the first growing season under Tekir forest nursery conditions in Kahramanmaras,Turkey

In this study, growth potential of Crimean juniper (Juniperus excelsa Bieb.) seedlings for the first growing season under Tekir Forest Nursery conditions in Kahramanmaras was evaluated. The height growth of Crimean juniper seedlings was relatively close to that of Lebanon cedar (Cedrus libani A. Rich.) seedlings produced in the same nursery, but their root collar diameters were fairly lower than that of Lebanon cedar seedlings. According to coniferous seedling standards of Turkish Standards Institute, the height growth of Crimean juniper seedlings was fairly good, but their root collar diameters were slightly small. In this respect, that 2+0 or 1+1 Crimean juniper seedlings are used in reforestation activities in the region would be more useful than 1+0 seedlings.     

Allelopathic effect of four weed species extracts on germination, growth and protein in different varieties of Glycine max (L.) Merrill

Allelopathic effect of Ageratum conyzoides L., Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Parthenium hysterophorus L., and Solanum nigrum L. were examined on seed germination, seedling growth, total protein content and protein profile on Ankur, Bhatt, Bragg, PK -416, PS-1042 and Shilajeet varieties of soybean (Glycine max (L) Merill). Aqueous extracts of weeds (10% w/v) showed both inhibitory and stimulatory influence on percent seed germination and seedling growth in different varieties of soybean. On the basis of per cent reduction in different parameters, the variety Bragg and PS-1042, and Shilajeet were resistant and susceptible respectively to different weed extracts, and among weed extracts, S. nigrum was most effective followed by P. hysterophorus compared to others. The total protein content (mg/g f wt.) in different varieties was increased with all the weed extracts except Bragg with C. dactylon and P. hysterophorus, PS-1042 with A. conyzoides and Shilajeet with C. dactylon, in which it was decreased. The protein banding pattern in different varieties not only differ between control and treatments but also among treatments. The order of susceptibility of different varieties with different weed extracts followed the order: Ankur > PK-416 > Bhatt > Shilajeet > Bragg and > PS-1042.     

铜、锌污染对水稻土中油菜（Brassica chinensis L.）生长的影响及累积效应研究

通过盆栽试验,系统研究了Cu、Zn重金属污染对油菜（Brassica chinensis L.）生长、SOD保护酶活性、脯氨酸、可溶性糖及Cu、Zn在油菜体内吸收富集的影响。结果表明：Cu、Zn污染对油菜生物量和生理生化指标（SOD保护酶活性、脯氨酸和可溶性糖）均有影响。随着Cu、Zn质量分数的升高,植株干物重和SOD保护酶活性表现为先增后降;当Cu质量分数达到1 000 mg？kg-1时,油菜干物重和SOD酶活性分别比对照下降36.79%、66.67%;当Zn质量分数达到3 000 mg？kg-1时,油菜干物重和SOD酶活性分别比对照下降55.21%、82.05%。Cu污染下,油菜叶片脯氨酸质量分数逐渐下降,总可溶性糖质量分数表现为先增后降;Zn污染下,脯氨酸和总可溶性糖质量分数均表现为先增后降。Cu、Zn污染使油菜幼苗叶片及根中的Cu、Zn质量分数明显增加,根部的积累尤其明显。当Cu处理为1 000 mg？kg-1时,油菜茎叶和根中质量分数分别为57.6、424.162 mg？kg-1;当Zn处理为1 000 mg？kg-1时,油菜茎叶和根中质量分数分别为240、608.54 mg？kg-1。与Zn相比,Cu主要积累在油菜的根部,向茎叶迁移累积的量很少,并且随着添加质量分数的增加,茎叶吸收Cu的量变化不大。总之,重金属Zn相对于Cu更容易积累于油菜的地上部分,从而更易进入食物链,它们在油菜体内富集都对其生理生化和营养产生了明显毒害作用。     

Life history strategy of a southern European population of brown shrimp (Crangon crangon L.): evidence for latitudinal changes in growth phenology and population dynamics

This study provides a comprehensive examination of the life cycle dynamics of the brown shrimp (Crangon crangon L.) in the Mondego estuary, Portugal, a habitat located near the southern edge of the range of this species in European waters. The phenology of all life stages was documented (from the occurrence of ovigerous females, developing embryos, planktonic larvae and benthic post-larvae), and migration patterns of larvae into and out of the estuary were examined. Temperature-dependent functions of egg and larval development were combined with data on field abundance to predict the timing and magnitude of occurrence of larvae and recruits. Compared to brown shrimp at higher latitudes, southern conspecifics grow slower, mature earlier and have smaller brood sizes, and larvae have a more protracted settlement period. The Mondego estuary, besides acting as nursery area, is a dynamic platform for C. crangon to use in different stages, sizes and seasons.     

不同轮作制度下施肥对冬小麦田间杂草群落及小麦生长的影响

为探讨不同轮作制度下长期施肥对冬小麦Triticum aestivum L.田间杂草及小麦生长的影响,我们在三个长期田间肥效试验定位点,研究3种轮作制度下(冬小麦-大豆Glycine max (L.) Merr.(WS)、冬小麦-夏玉米Zea Mays L.(WM)、冬小麦-中稻Oryza sativa(WR))长期不同施肥模式对冬小麦田间杂草群落及小麦生长的影响.研究表明,在3种轮作制度下,平衡施加N、P、K肥或者NPK肥配施有机肥均可以显著降低冬小麦田杂草密度、地上生物量和田间光照透过率,促进冬小麦生长,并提高冬小麦产量和地上生物量;而且在冬小麦-大豆轮作和冬小麦-中稻轮作的冬小麦田中平衡施加N、P和K肥可以在控制杂草密度的同时保持一个较均一的杂草群落.3种轮作制度下各指标相对值比较发现,3种轮作制度改变施肥对冬小麦田间光照透过率影响程度的顺序与3种轮作制度改变冬小麦田中施肥对杂草密度和地上生物量影响程度的顺序相同;另外,在冬小麦-大豆轮作和冬小麦-中稻轮作制度下杂草密度与冬小麦田间光照透过率之间的相关系数也很高(R≥0.7906),说明施肥对冬小麦田间光照透过率的改变可能是施肥影响冬小麦田间杂草群落的主要途径之一.轮作制度改变冬小麦田中施肥对优势杂草种类数和杂草生物多样性影响的程度差别不大,这可能是因为轮作改变施肥对田间杂草的影响并没有达到引起田间杂草物种消亡的程度.结果表明,在3种轮作制度中施肥对冬小麦田间杂草群落及小麦生长的影响虽有差异,但都显示出施肥在抑制田间杂草发生、维持杂草生物多样性和提高作物产量上的作用.     

沙芥幼苗叶片解剖结构和光合作用对干旱胁迫的响应

为了了解干旱胁迫对植物光合作用和叶片结构的影响,明确植物光合作用和结构对干旱胁迫的响应,本研究以沙生植物、中国特有种---沙芥为材料,采用Li-6400光合仪和常规石蜡切片法,研究了干旱胁迫下沙芥光合参数、叶片解剖结构的变化,结合前期对沙芥叶片内活性氧物质含量变化的研究,试图阐述沙芥叶片应对干旱胁迫的机制,揭示沙生植物—沙芥在干旱环境中的生存策略,为植物耐旱性提供理论依据。结果表明：随着土壤含水量下降,净光合速率(Pn)、蒸腾速率(Tr)、气孔导度(Gs)、叶片厚度、上表皮厚度、下表皮厚度呈下降趋势;海绵组织厚度呈先下降后上升的趋势;胞间二氧化碳浓度(Ci)呈上升的趋势;气孔限制值(Ls)、水分利用率(WUE)、栅栏组织和栅栏组织/海绵组织和叶片组织结构紧密度(CTR)呈先先上升后下降的趋势;且在土壤含水量大于39% WHC时沙芥光合和结构受影响较小,在土壤含水量低于39% WHC时,沙芥光合作用受到抑制,而叶片紧密度变大,能够较好的抵御干旱环境。结果表明干旱胁迫下沙芥幼苗叶片光合作用的下降是非气孔因素造成的,且其叶片结构的变化会影响光合作用,光合作用通过产生活性氧对结构也有影响。说明沙芥能够很好的适应中度干旱以上的环境,在重度干旱环境中沙芥通过调节叶片结构以适应环境,这可能是沙芥能够在沙漠地区生存繁殖的原因之一。     

Integrating effects of leaf nitrogen,age, rank,and growth temperature into the photosynthesis-stomatal conductance model LEAFC3-N parameterised for barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

A crucial challenge for including biophysical photosynthesis–transpiration models into complex crop growth models is to integrate the plasticity of photosynthetic processes that is related to factors like nitrogen (N) content, age, and rank of leaves, or to the adaptation of plants to growth temperature (T_g). Here we present a new version of the combined photosynthesis-stomatal conductance model LEAFC3-N [Müller, J., Wernecke, P., Diepenbrock, W., 2005. LEAFC3-N: a nitrogen sensitive extension of the CO₂ and H₂O gas exchange model LEAFC3 parameterised and tested for winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Ecological Modelling 183, 183–210.] that was revised, extended and completely re-parameterised for barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) with special regard for these factors to facilitate the use of the model in ecophysiological studies and in crop modelling. The analysis is based on novel comprehensive data on photosynthetic CO₂ and light response curves measured at two oxygen concentrations and different temperatures on leaves of barley (H. vulgare L.) differing in leaf N and chlorophyll content. Plants were grown in climatic chambers or in the field at different N and T_g.We thoroughly revised the existing and introduced new nitrogen relations for key model parameters that account for a linear increase with leaf N of V_max, J_max, T_p, and R_dmax (maximum rates of carboxylation, electron transport, triose phosphate export, and mitochondrial respiration), a saturation-type increase of φ (quantum yield of electron transport), and a non-linear decrease of θ and m (curvature of the light dependence of electron transport rate, scaling factor of the stomata model). The adaptation of photosynthetic characteristics to T_g was included into the model by linear relations that were observed between T_g and the activation energy ΔH_a of the temperature response characteristics of V_max, J_max, and T_p as well as of the nitrogen dependency of these characteristics. Based on an analysis of diurnal time courses of gas exchange rates it was found necessary including not only the relation between leaf water potential (Ψ) and stomatal conductance as used originally in LEAFC3, but additional effects on V_max and J_max. With the above-listed extensions, the model was capable to reproduce the observed plasticity and the recorded diurnal time courses of gas exchange rates fairly well. Thus, we conclude that the new model version can be used under a broad range of conditions, both for ecophysiological studies and as a submodel of crop growth models. The results presented here for barley will facilitate adapting photosynthesis models like LEAFC3-N to other C₃-species as well. The modelling of the effects of drought stress should be further elaborated in future based on more specific experiments.     

Genotype variations in accumulation of cadmium and lead in celery (Apium graveolens L.) and screening for low Cd and Pb accumulative cultivars

To help reduce risks of heavy metal pollution, two pot experiments were conducted to investigate the variations, transfer potential, and stability of Cadmium (Cd) and Lead (Pb) accumulations in celery (Apium graveolens L.) and to screen for low Cd and Pb accumulative cultivars. The maximum differences in shoot Cd concentration were 4.7-fold under low-Cd exposure and 3.3-fold under high-Cd exposure. These genotype variations in Cd accumulation are sufficiently large to help reduce Cd contamination risk in soil by using the Low-Cd-Accumulative genotypes. Cd accumulation of the Low-Cd-Accumulative genotypes is significantly positive correlated with Pb accumulation. Evidence obtained proves that Cd and Pb accumulations in celery are stable and genotype-dependent at the cultivar level. The presence of high-Pb contamination in soil promoted Cd accumulation in shoots of celery. Celery is considered a species with high risks in Cd pollution and low risks in Pb pollution. Among the tested cultivars, cv. Shuanggangkangbing (SGKB) had the lowest shoot Cd and Pb accumulating abilities, and thus is the most important material for breeding of pollution-safe cultivars (PSCs) to minimize Cd and Pb accumulations in celery.     

Stabilization of metals in acidic mine spoil with amendments and red fescue (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Festuca rubra</Emphasis> L.) growth

Stabilization of metals with amendments and red fescue (Festuca rubra, cv. Keszthelyi 2) growth was studied on an acidic and phytotoxic mine spoil (pH_KCl 3.20–3.26; Cd 7.1 mg kg^?1, Cu 120 mg kg^?1, Pb 2154 mg kg^?1 and Zn 605 mg kg^?1) from Gyöngyösoroszi, Hungary in a pot experiment. Raising the pH above 5.0 by lime (CaCO₃), and supplementing with 40 mg kg^?1nitrogen (NH₄NO₃) made this material suitable for plant growth. All cultures were limed with 0.5% (m/m) CaCO₃ (treatment 1), which was combined with 5% (m/m) municipal sewage sludge compost (treatment 2), 5% (m/m) peat (treatment 3), 7.5% (m/m) natural zeolite (clinoptilolite) (treatment 4), and 0.5 (m/m) KH₂PO₄ (treatment 5). Treatments 1–5 were combined with each other (treatment 6). After 60 days of red fescue growth, pH of the limed mine spoil decreased in all cultures units. Application of peat caused the highest pH decrease (1.15), while decrease of pH was less than 0.23 in treatments 2, 5 or 6. Application of lime significantly reduced concentrations of metals in the ‘plant available’ fraction of mine spoil compared to non-limed mine spoil. Amendments added to limed mine spoil changed variously the ratio of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn in exchangeable or ‘plant available’ fractions, differently influencing the phytoavailability of these metals. Most of the metals were captured in the roots of test plants. Treatment 2 caused the appearance of less Cd in shoots (<0.1 μg g^?1) or roots (3.11 μg g^?1), while treatment 5 resulted in the highest Cd concentration (2.13 μg g^?1) in shoots. Treatments did not influence significantly the Cu accumulation in shoots. The Pb accumulation of roots (44.7 μg g^?1) was most effectively inhibited by combined treatment, while the highest value (136 μg g^?1) was found in the culture treated with potassium phosphate. Pb concentration in shoots was below the detection limit, except for treatments 5 and 6. Peat application resulted in higher Zn concentration (448 μg g^?1) in shoots than other amendments, where these values were around 100 μg g^?1. All amendments influenced positively the dry matter yield of red fescue grown in limed mine spoil, however the application of 0.5 phosphate was less favourable. Liming, application of amendments and growth of red fescue can stabilize metals in acidic and phytotoxic mine spoil, and by phytostabilization they can reduce the risk of metal contamination of the food chain.     

Growth, biomass production and photosynthesis of Cenchrus ciliaris L. under Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne based silvopastoral systems in semi arid tropics

The growth, biomass production and photosynthesis of Cenchrus ciliaris was studied under the canopies of 17 yr old Acacia tortilis trees in semi arid tropical environment. On an average the full grown canopy of A. tortilis at the spacing of 4 x 4 m allowed 55% of total Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) which in turn increased Relative Humidity (RH) and reduced under canopy temperature to -1.75 degrees C over the open air temperature. C. ciliaris attained higher height under the shade of A. tortilis. The tiller production and leaf area index decreased marginally under the shade of tree canopies as compared to the open grown grasses. C. ciliaris accumulated higher chlorophyll a and b under the shade of tree canopies indicating its shade adaptation potential. The assimilatory functions such as rate of photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance, photosynthetic water use efficiency (PN/TR) and carboxylation efficiency (PN/CINT) decreased under the tree canopies due to low availability of PAR. The total biomass production in term of fresh and dry weight decreased under the tree canopies. On average of 2 yr C. ciliaris had produced 12.78 t ha(-1) green and 3.72 -t ha(-1) dry biomass under the tree canopies of A. tortilis. The dry matter yield reduced to 38% under the tree canopies over the open grown grasses. The A. tortilis + C. ciliaris maintained higher soil moisture, organic carbon content and available N P K for sustainable biomass production for the longer period. The higher accumulation of crude protein, starch, sugar and nitrogen in leaves and stem of C. ciliaris indicates that this grass species also maintained its quality under A. tortilis based silvopastoral system. The photosynthesis and dry matter accumulation are closely associated with available PAR indicating that for sustainable production of this grass species in the silvopasture systems for longer period about 55% or more PAR is required.     

The effects of feeding by the black bean aphidAphis fabae Scop. (Homoptera: Aphididae) on copper and cadmium accumulation in broad bean (Vicia faba L.)

Broad beans (Vicia faba L.), cultured hydroponically were supplied with 100 g mL^–1 copper or 50 g mL^–1 cadmium in nutrient solution. Samples of plant material from both nutrient regimes were analysed before and after infestation by the black bean aphid (Aphis fabae Scop.). Heavy aphid infestation resulted in a significant reduction in copper content of shoots in comparison with uninfested plants. A similar, but less well- defined, situation occurred in the case of cadmium.Further investigations examined the effects of different levels of aphid infestation on the above phenomena. In all cases the presence of feeding aphids reduced elemental accumulation in plant shoots. Long term infestation with population densities as low as three adult aphids showed a reduction in shoot copper and cadmium content.     

Temporal and spatial variation in the growth rates of Baltic herring (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Clupea harengus membras</Emphasis> L.) larvae during summer

It has been suggested that larval survival determines the year-class strength in most marine fish species. During their growth and development, the ability of the larvae to catch prey and avoid predation will increase. However, the factors affecting short-term changes in the growth of Baltic Sea herring have been little studied in the field. We collected Baltic herring (Clupea harengus membras L.) larvae from five different towing areas in the Archipelago Sea (SW Finland) during May and June 1989, right after the main spawning season. Twenty thousand two hundred and ten larvae were analysed and the area-specific growth rate (i.e. increase in standard length) was estimated by tracing the larval cohorts from the length-frequency data. This represents the first Baltic herring study with daily sampling during a long study period. The growth rate was related to environmental factors, such as temperature, number of zooplankters, and wind speed and direction. Large variation in larval growth rate occurred between areas: lowest and highest growth rates were 0.18 and 0.52 mm·day^-1. Temperature was an important variable controlling larval-fish growth rate. An increase of one 1°C in average water temperature corresponded to an increase in growth rate of 0.043 mm·day^-1. This may have been caused either by a direct temperature effect (changes in metabolic rate) or by the indirect effect of changes in food availability. We also found the densest herring populations in the areas with highest average water temperature. However, temperature and larval growth rate both increased towards the inner archipelago.