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1.
Direct male-male competition can facilitate invasion of new colour types in Lake Victoria cichlids 总被引:2,自引:2,他引:0
Peter D. Dijkstra Ole Seehausen Ton G. G. Groothuis 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2005,58(2):136-143
The possibility that disruptive sexual selection alone can cause sympatric speciation is currently a subject of much debate. The initial difficulty for new and rare ornament phenotypes to invade a population, and the stabilisation of the resulting polymorphism in trait and preference make this hypothesis problematic. Recent theoretical work indicates that the invasion is facilitated if males with the new phenotype have an initial advantage in male-male competition. We studied a pair of sympatric incipient species of cichlids from Lake Victoria, in which the red (Pundamilia nyererei) and blue males (P. pundamilia) vigorously defend territories. Other studies suggested that red phenotypes may have repeatedly invaded blue populations in independent episodes of speciation. We hypothesised that red coloration confers an advantage in male-male competition, assisting red phenotypes to invade. To test this hypothesis, we staged contests between red and blue males from a population where the phenotypes are interbreeding morphs or incipient species. We staged contests under both white and green light condition. Green light effectively masks the difference between red and blue coloration. Red males dominated blue males under white light, but their competitive advantage was significantly diminished under green light. Contests were shorter when colour differences were visible. Experience of blue males with red males did not affect the outcome of a contest. The advantage of red over blue in combats may assist the red phenotype to invade blue populations. The apparently stable co-existence of red and blue incipient species in many populations of Lake Victoria cichlids is discussed.Communicated by C. St. Mary 相似文献
2.
For intersexual selection to occur, it is necessary that females choose between males. It is now well appreciated that constraints
exist, which preclude females sampling all the available males in a population. These constraints are likely to have caused
the evolution of sampling rules (such as the “best-of-n” rule) by which females sample males. Here we investigate the impact of female subsampling of the male population, not on
the evolution of sampling behaviour, but on the population-level correlation between a male trait and currencies such as reproductive
success. This study is important as it illustrates when population-level correlations can be safely used to infer the presence
and strength of sexual selection in the field. We find that the correlation between a male trait and a mate choice variable
rises steeply as the number of males sampled by each female increases, flattening above seven to ten males sampled. This shape
is found to be remarkably robust, and little affected by, for example, the mate choice variable used, by noise in assessment,
by sampling behaviour depending on female quality, or by population size. The only variable found to have a large impact is
male clumping according to their “quality”. If females are sampling about four males, the maximum correlation that can be
found at the population level is in the range 0.4–0.6, perhaps as little as 0.1 if males are strongly clumped. A recent review
of the literature suggests that four is the average number of males that females sample. Thus, the absence of a strong correlation
cannot by itself be used to infer that sexual selection is weak, as it may be due to females sampling few males.
Received: 18 May 1998 / Accepted after revision: 18 July 1998 相似文献
3.
Variance in female quality, operational sex ratio and male mate choice in a bushcricket 总被引:8,自引:0,他引:8
Male bushcrickets, Kawanaphila nartee, exercise mate choice when nutrients are limited. Male mate choice is associated with a female-biased operational sex ratio
(OSR) that arises from an increased relative paternal investment under nutrient limitation. However, increased male choosiness
could be attributable to the fact that females vary more in fecundity, and consequently in mate quality, when nutrient limited.
Our objective was to experimentally partition the influences of OSR (male or female bias) and variance in mate quality (high
or low) and to assess their relative influence on the intensity of mate choice by male bushcrickets. Female quality was manipulated
by controlled feeding regimes that directly affected female fecundity. We found that males and females engaged in sexual interactions
sooner under a male-biased than a female-biased OSR. Males were more likely to reject females on their first encounter when
variance in female quality was high. However, the effect of quality variance on the total number of rejections during a 4-h
observation period was dependent on the perceived OSR. A male's prior experience of variance in female quality did not influence
male choosiness. Our observed rates of mate rejection conformed well with those predicted from recent theoretical models of
sexual differences in choosiness. In conclusion, our results show that the opportunity for selection via male mate choice
is influenced by an interaction between OSR and the variance in mate quality that arises within nutrient-limited populations
of females.
Received: 5 January 1998 / Accepted after revision: 25 October 1998 相似文献
4.
We present a model of error-prone female choice on leks, and investigate the effects of different degrees of error on the
distribution of mating success among males present at leks of different sizes. At higher levels of error, the best male is
predicted to gain a smaller share of matings, while low-ranking males gain a larger share. Males who are of high rank but
not the most desirable on the lek do best at intermediate levels of error, since the top-ranked male does not then claim all
the matings, but assessment is still sufficiently accurate for females to discriminate between high-ranking and low-ranking
competitors. The effects of error are shown to be more pronounced on larger leks, due to smaller expected differences in mating
value between males of adjacent ranks. This interaction between lek size and error suggests that observed negative relationships
between lek size and mating skew need not be attributed solely to intrasexual competition, as previously suggested, but could
also be a result of imperfect choice.
Received: 20 February 1998 / Accepted after revision: 25 October 1998 相似文献
5.
The tactics of mutual mate choice and competitive search 总被引:9,自引:0,他引:9
Rufus A. Johnstone 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1997,40(1):51-59
A model of mutual mate choice is described, formulated as a dynamic game, which yields predictions about mating behaviour
under the influence of time constraints, choice costs and competition for mates. These variables were examined because they
may result in a change in the distribution of qualities among unmated individuals of both sexes over the course of the breeding
season. The model predicts that mutual choice gives rise to assortative mating, although high costs of choice and/or inaccurate
assessment both lead to lower overall correlations between the qualities (or the attractiveness) of mates. When all individuals
are present from the start of the breeding season, the correlation between the qualities of individuals pairing at a given
time declines throughout the season, so that mates are more closely matched among individuals who pair early than among those
who pair late (and extra-pair copulation may thus be more common among the latter). Delayed arrival of lower-quality individuals
may, however, lead to an increase in this correlation with time during the early part of the season. The mean quality of unmated
males and females declines over time, because more attractive individuals tend to mate sooner. As a result of this decline,
and because of time constraints, superior individuals become less choosy as the season progresses. If choice is costly, however,
then inferior individuals become more selective with time during the early part of the season, and the level of choosiness
peaks later for such individuals.
Received: 28 March 1996 / Accepted after revision: 21 September 1996 相似文献
6.
Machteld N. Verzijden R. E. Madeleine Korthof Carel ten Cate 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2008,62(8):1359-1368
While species-assortative behaviour is often observed in sympatrically occurring species, there are few examples where we
understand the extent to which development of assortative behaviour is genetically or environmentally determined, for instance,
through learning. However, the majority of mate choice theory assumes genetic recognition mechanisms. Knowledge about the
development of species recognition is important for our understanding of how closely related species can coexist and how this
coexistence may have arisen. The ontogeny of female mate choice, for instance, may critically influence the degree of assortative
mating under many circumstances. Also, male assortative aggression behaviour may affect fitness and the possibility for coexistence
of two closely related species. Here, we test whether male aggression biases and female mate preferences of two Lake Victoria
rock cichlid species, Mbipia mbipi and Mbipia lutea, are affected by experience. With an interspecific cross-fostering experiment, we test for the effect of experience with
the phenotype of the mother and that of the siblings on species-assortative mate preferences and aggression biases. We demonstrate
that female mate preferences are strongly influenced by learning about their mothers’ phenotype but not by experience with
their siblings, despite ample opportunity for interactions. Male aggression biases, in contrast, are affected by experience
with siblings but not by learning about their mothers’ phenotype. We suggest that the development of assortative behaviour
of females, but not of males, creates favourable conditions for sympatric speciation in Lake Victoria cichlids. 相似文献
7.
Kathrin P. Lampert Ximena E. Bernal A. Stanley Rand Ulrich G. Mueller Michael J. Ryan 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2006,59(6):796-804
In most sexually reproducing animals, the behavior of one or both sexes during courtship critically influences the success
at mating of the opposite sex. This behavior is often interpreted as “mate choice,” and there is great interest in why such
choices are exercised. The explanation for the evolution of mate choice that has received the most attention and generated
the most controversy is based on assumed genetic effects. In this study, we investigated whether female túngara frogs, which
choose mates based on acoustic cues, have a preference for genetically less related males. Specifically, we determine if there
is disassortive mating based on microsatellite markers, if there is information in the advertisement call that could be used
to assess genetic similarity, and if females exhibit acoustic-based mating preferences that would promote choice for genetic
diversity. Using seven microsatellite markers, we found no correlation of male call similarity and male genetic relatedness.
Female choice experiments showed no female preference for calls of less related males, and there was no evidence for inbreeding
avoidance in the field. Our results do not support the hypothesis of mate choice based on information about genetic relatedness
conveyed by acoustic signals in túngara frogs. 相似文献
8.
K. A. Spencer J. H. Wimpenny K. L. Buchanan P. G. Lovell A. R. Goldsmith C. K. Catchpole 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2005,58(4):423-428
Developmental stress has recently been shown to have adverse effects upon adult male song structure in birds, which may well act as an honest signal of male quality to discriminating females. However, it still remains to be shown if females can discriminate between the songs of stressed and non-stressed males. Here we use a novel experimental design using an active choice paradigm to investigate preferences in captive female zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata). Nine females were exposed to ten pairs of songs by previously stressed and non-stressed birds that had learned their song from the same tutor. Song pairs differed significantly in terms of song complexity, with songs of stressed males exhibiting lower numbers of syllables and fewer different syllables in a phrase. Song rate and peak frequency did not differ between stressed and non-stressed males. Females showed a significant preference for non-stressed songs in terms of directed perching activity and time spent on perches. Our results therefore indicate that developmental stress affects not only the structure of male song, but that such structural differences are biologically relevant to female mate choice decisions. 相似文献
9.
Peter D. Dijkstra Els M. van der Zee Ton G. G. Groothuis 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2008,62(5):747-755
Mate preferences on male colour have been implicated in generating and maintaining species diversity among haplochromine cichlid
fish. Their lek-like mating system suggests that not only male colour but also territory quality is instrumental in mate choice.
We assessed the relative importance of territory quality and male colour in mate choice by testing whether territory quality
can override the female preference for males of her own colour in the Lake Victoria cichlid genus Pundamilia. First, we showed in experimental groups that the dominant male preferentially monopolised a large tube relative to a small
tube. The situation mimics quality difference in rocky crevices that serves as a focal point for male courtship display. Second,
in mate-choice tests, Pundamilia nyererei females were allowed to choose between closely related P. nyererei and P. pundamilia males; these species differ strikingly in male nuptial coloration, but little else. We gave either both males the same small
tube or one of them a large tube. The preference of P. nyererei females for P. nyererei males in the control situation (where both males had a small tube) was significantly diminished in favour of P. pundamilia males when the latter had the large tube. The results provide experimental evidence that differences in territory quality
can override the female preference for males of her own colour. This finding is critical for a recent hypothesis proposing
that male competition for mating territories can facilitate the process of sympatric speciation by sexual selection. 相似文献
10.
Evolution of the mate recognition system (MRS) can play a central role in animal speciation. One dramatic consequence of changes
in the MRS is the failure of individuals from divergent lineages to successfully court and mate, thereby reducing gene flow
between these groups. Here, we test the role of an acoustic mating signal on mate choice in a Hawaiian cricket genus (Gryllidae:
Laupala). Speciation in Laupala is proceeding at an extremely rapid rate, apparently driven by divergence in aspects of the mate recognition system, most
conspicuously the pulse rate of male calling song. Previous studies demonstrate that females prefer the pulse rate of a conspecific
male’s song when perceived at long range, in laboratory phonotaxis trials. In this study, we examined mate choice in two species
that differ dramatically in pulse rate: Laupala paranigra and Laupala kohalensis. We tested the female’s preference in both species for pulse rates at close range, by providing females an opportunity to
mate with hybrid males producing a range of intermediate pulse rates. Results of our study demonstrate that while strong behavioral
barriers exist between these two species, variation in the pulse rate of male calling song did not predict female mate choice
at close range. These results suggest a more complex architecture to mate recognition in Laupala than previously hypothesized. 相似文献
11.
D. J. Green H. L. Osmond M. C. Double A. Cockburn 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2000,48(6):438-446
Empirical and theoretical studies have only recently begun to examine how females use complex multi-component displays when
selecting mates. Superb fairy-wrens are well suited to the study of female choice because females have control over extra-group
paternity and cuckold their mates at high rates, while males possess a variety of sexually selected traits. Available evidence
suggests that females base their extra-group mate choice on the timing of male moult into breeding plumage or the onset of
display. However, males continue to perform elaborate displays throughout the season, and direct most displays to females
during their fertile period. We therefore conducted focal observations on fertile females to quantify the frequency of male
display and used microsatellite genotyping to compare the role of display rate during the breeding season and the timing of
male moult on female mate choice. We show that the addition of data on male display rate does not improve our ability to predict
which males obtain extra-group paternity. The timing of male moult into breeding plumage remains the only predictor of male
extra-group reproductive success. Nevertheless, we found that males displayed more to females that were unable to select extra-group
mates on the basis of the timing of moult or the onset of display. This raises the possibility that there are circumstances
when females use display rate to discriminate between potential extra-group sires. Overall this study supports the theoretical
prediction that females are more likely to base their mate choice on reliable indicators of male quality such as fixed morphological
traits and displays of endurance, in this case an early moult into breeding plumage and the performance of an elaborate display
during the winter, than a flexible behavioural trait such as display rate during the breeding season.
Received: 26 January 2000 / Revised: 1 August 2000 / Accepted: 26 August 2000 相似文献
12.
Craig A. Walling Nick J. Royle Neil B. Metcalfe Jan Lindström 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2007,61(7):1007-1014
It is well documented that poor early nutrition can have profound negative effects on adult life-history traits. However,
it has also been demonstrated that organisms can undergo compensatory resource allocation strategies (such as an accelerated
growth rate) if food availability improves, so as to mitigate the effects of the poor early conditions. Previous research
has indicated that elevated growth rates can incur costs in the longer term, such as an increased rate of senescence and shorter
lifespan. We tested whether a phase of compensatory growth after a period of reduced food availability earlier in life affected
the sexual attractiveness of adult male green swordtails Xiphophorus helleri, a species in which it has previously been documented that females prefer larger-bodied and longer-tailed males. The experiment
compared the attractiveness of size-matched brothers that had experienced contrasting growth trajectories as juveniles; the
experiments were initially conducted in the middle of a male’s sexually reproductive life and were then repeated towards the
very end of life. At both ages, males that had undergone compensatory growth were equally as attractive as their brothers
that had grown normally. These results suggest that the growth compensation benefits males through an increase in their attractiveness
over that which they would have had if they had remained on their original growth trajectory. The lack of change in relative
attractiveness with age indicates that the compensation does not cause greater deterioration in secondary sexual characters
at older ages than in continuously well-fed males. 相似文献
13.
Several experimental studies have shown that female birds use ornamental melanin and carotenoid plumage coloration as criteria
in mate choice. Whether females choose mates based on natural variation in structural coloration, however, has not been well
established. Male eastern bluebirds (Sialia sialis) display brilliant ultraviolet (UV)-blue plumage coloration on their head, back, wings, and tail, which is positively correlated
with condition, reproductive effort, and reproductive success. We experimentally tested the hypothesis that female eastern
bluebirds prefer as mates males that display brighter structural coloration by presenting breeding-condition females with
males of variable coloration. We conducted two types of mate-choice experiments. First, females chose between males whose
coloration was manipulated within the natural range of variation in the population; feathers were either brightened with violet
marker or dulled with black marker. Second, females chose between males with naturally dull or bright plumage coloration.
In both manipulated and unmanipulated coloration trials, female choice did not differ significantly from random with respect
to structural coloration. We found no support for the hypothesis that the UV–blue coloration of male eastern bluebirds functions
as a criterion in female mate choice. 相似文献
14.
Charlyn Partridge Ingrid Ahnesjö Charlotta Kvarnemo Kenyon B. Mobley Anders Berglund Adam G. Jones 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2009,63(3):345-354
The last several decades of research in behavioral ecology have resulted in a deeper appreciation of post-mating processes
and sexual conflict in sexual selection. One of the most controversial aspects of sexual selection is cryptic mate choice.
Here, we take advantage of male pregnancy in a sex-role-reversed pipefish (Syngnathus typhle) to quantify cryptic choice based on perceived parasite load and other sources of variance in female fitness. Studies have
shown that S. typhle males preferentially mate with females with lower parasite loads and that a male’s perception of female parasite load can
be altered by tattooing females. We manipulated the apparent parasite load of females in controlled mating experiments to
test the hypothesis that post-copulatory sexual selection is dependent on a male’s perception of female parasite load in pipefish.
Our results provided no evidence for cryptic male choice based on perceived female parasite load. However, we found evidence
that eggs from larger females were more likely to result in viable offspring than eggs from smaller females and that the first
female to mate with a male transferred more eggs per copulation on average. Overall, our results show that potential for post-copulatory
sexual selection does exist in pipefish, but the male’s perception of female parasite load does not play a major role in this
process. 相似文献
15.
Martin Plath Katja Kromuszczynski Ralph Tiedemann 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2009,63(3):381-390
Males often face strong mating competition by neighboring males in their social environment. A recent study by Plath et al.
(Anim Behav 75:21–29, 2008a) has demonstrated that the visual presence of a male competitor (i.e., an audience male) affects
the expression of male mating preferences in a poeciliid fish (Poecilia mexicana) with a weaker expression of mating preferences when an audience male observed the focal male. This may be a tactic to reduce
sperm competition, since surrounding males likely share intrinsic preferences for female traits or copy mate choice decisions.
Here, we examined the hypothesis that a same-sex audience would affect female mate preferences less than male mating preferences. Our hypothesis was based on the assumptions that (1) competition for
mates in a fashion that would be comparable in strength to sperm competition or overt male–male aggression is absent among
Poecilia females, and (2) P. mexicana females typically form female-biased shoals, such that almost any female mate choice in nature occurs in front of a female
audience. Poecilia females (P. mexicana, surface and cave form, and the closely related gynogenetic Poecilia formosa) were given a choice between a large and a small male, and the tests were repeated while a conspecific, a heterospecific,
or no audience female (control) was presented. Females spent more time in the neutral zone and, thus, less time near the males
during the second part of a trial when an audience was presented, but—consistent with predictions—females showed only slightly
weaker expression of mate preferences during the second part of the tests. This decline was not specific to the treatment
involving an audience and was significantly weaker than the effect seen in the male sex. 相似文献
16.
Pheromone-based female mate choice and its effect on reproductive investment in a spitting spider 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Teck Hui Koh Wee Khee Seah Laura-Marie Y. L. Yap Daiqin Li 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2009,63(6):923-930
Numerous studies have focused on whether organisms can signal or perceive pheromones and use chemical signals in species and
mate recognition. Recently, there have been an increasing number of studies investigating whether pheromones are used in mate
choice. Yet, little attention has been paid in exploring the effects of pheromone-based mate choice on reproductive investment.
We first tested this hypothesis by providing virgin Scytodes sp. females with a choice between two virgin males in the presence of chemical signals alone and found strong evidence of
an odor-based mate preference. We then examined the consequences of the odor-based mate choice by allowing female Scytodes sp. that had previously made an odor-only mate choice to mate with preferred and non-preferred males, respectively. We measured
the success of copulation, mortality of male, pre-oviposition interval, egg-sac weight, egg weight, fecundity, fertility,
embryonic period, and size of offspring at hatching. Females that mated with the preferred males produced significantly heavier
egg sacs that contained more and larger eggs with a greater fertility. Significantly more non-preferred males than preferred
males were killed by spitting. However, pre-oviposition interval, embryonic period, and hatchling size were not affected by
female mate choice. This study is the first to demonstrate that female spiders are able to regulate their highly valuable
reproductive investment based solely on chemical signals. 相似文献
17.
Females across many taxa commonly use multiple or complex traits to choose mates. However, the functional significance of
multiple or complex signals remains controversial and largely unknown. Different elements of multiple or complex signals may
convey independent pieces of information about different aspects of a prospective mate (the “multiple messages” hypothesis).
Alternatively, multiple or complex signals could provide redundant information about the same aspect of a prospective mate
(the “redundant” or “back-up” signal hypothesis). We investigated these alternatives using spadefoot toads, Scaphiopus couchii. Spadefoot toads primarily use calls to attract their mates, but males also exhibit sexually dimorphic coloration. We investigated
whether male coloration is indicative of male size, condition, or infection status by a socially transmitted monogenean flatworm.
We found that male coloration and dorsal patterning predicts male size and condition but not infection status. Moreover, when
we presented females with a choice between a bright male model and a dark male model, we found that females preferred the
bright model. Because aspects of males’ calls are also associated with male size and condition, we conclude that coloration
is a potentially redundant indicator of male phenotype. We suggest that coloration could enhance mate choice in conjunction
with male calling behavior by providing females with a long distance cue that could enable them to identify prospective mates
in a noisy chorus environment where the discrimination of individual calls is often difficult. Generally, such redundant signals
may facilitate mate choice by enhancing the quality and accuracy of information females receive regarding prospective mates. 相似文献
18.
U. M. Savalli 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1994,35(4):227-234
Recent investigations of male ornaments in sexual selection have used experimental manipulation of tail length in three widowbird species, but only for one of these have correlates of male reproductive success been reported. I examined correlates of male attractiveness to nesting females over two breeding seasons for the polygynous yellow-shouldered widowbird, Euplectes macrourus, in order to discover which cues females may be using to select mates. The black, long-tailed ( 10 cm) males defend large territories and build nest frames, or cock's nests, which females then line and use for nesting. I examined various aspects of male morphology, five behavioral displays, territory characteristics, and the number of cock's nests that males built. Few correlates of mating success were found. The best predictor was the number of cock's nests that a male builds, though one courtship display also correlated with male mating success in 1 year, as did average grass height. Tail length did not correlate with male mating success. A partial correlation analysis confirmed that cock's nests and, in 1 year, grass height, were the primary contributers to male success. Females may choose where to nest primarily on the availability of suitable nesting sites. Long tails may be used by females seeking extra-pair copulations or in male-male competition for territories. 相似文献
19.
Female distribution affects mate searching and sexual selection in male northern water snakes (Nerodia sipedon) 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Mating systems and sexual selection are assumed to be affected by the distribution of critical resources. We use observations
of 312 mating aggregations to compare mate-searching success of male northern water snakes (Nerodia sipedon) in two marshes in which differences in mating substrate availability resulted in more than fourfold differences in female
dispersion. Reproductive males had significantly larger home ranges where females were dispersed than where females were clumped.
The number of females encountered by males increased significantly with male home range size where females were dispersed,
and decreased significantly where females were clumped. Where females were clumped, males were more likely to encounter other
males when they located females. We found no evidence in either population that mate searching was energetically expensive
or that males with relatively more energy had larger home ranges. However, males with greater fat reserves at the start of
the season participated in more mating aggregations when females were dispersed, suggesting that fat reserves could affect
a male’s willingness to attempt mating or to persist in aggregations. When females were dispersed there was weak stabilizing
selection acting to maintain male body size (β=–0.14), but strong directional selection favoring larger (β=0.50) and fatter
(β=0.37) males. Over 7 years, the intensity of selection favoring larger males varied substantially (β=0.14–1.15), but that
variation was not related to variation in the operational sex ratio. We found no evidence of directional selection on either
body size (β=0.05) or fat reserves (β=0.10) of males when females were spatially clumped. Overall, the distribution of females
had a pronounced effect on male behavior, on the factors that affected male success in locating females, and probably on the
extent of sperm competition once females had been located.
Received: 23 November 1998 / Received in revised form: 9 August 1999 / Accepted: 18 August 1999 相似文献
20.
Effects of male dominance and courtship display on female choice in the ring-necked pheasant 总被引:7,自引:0,他引:7
Male traits and behaviours acting in mate choice and intrasexual competition are expected to be congruent. When studying
their evolution, this often makes it difficult to differentiate between these two components of sexual selection. Studies
are therefore needed on mate choice in conjunction with the role of displays and dominance. We present the results from two
experiments conducted to investigate the effects of male dominance and courtship displays on female choice in the ring-necked
pheasant, Phasianus colchicus, controlling for differences in morphological male traits. We found: (1) different courtship behaviours had different effects
on female choice: females were mainly attracted by the feeding courtship behaviour, while another courtship display (the lateral
display) was effective in producing the copulation-acceptance response by the females; (2) subordinate males performed the
courtship behaviour before females less frequently than dominant males, and females reinforced intrasexual selection by choosing
dominant males, and (3) subordinate males in visual contact with a dominant became less attractive to females. The results
support the idea (armament-ornament model) that female pheasants may benefit from using traits selected in male-male competition
as clues for mate choice.
Received: 23 October 1997 / Accepted after revision: 7 October 1998 相似文献