Metal interaction during accumulation by the mussel Mytilus edulis planulatus

Mytilus edulis planulatus (Lamarck) were collected from Howden, South-east Tasmania in autumn 1981. Interaction effects of cadmium, copper and zinc during accumulation by mussels exposed for ten days to all three metals simultaneously were examined in a series of experiments in which each metal was tested at three concentrations. In general, interaction effects were most evident at the highest concentrations tested (20 g l^-1 Cd; 20 g l^-1 Cu; 200 g l^-1 Zn) and led to a reduction in the accumulation of cadmium and an increase in that of copper and zinc. More specifically, high levels of zinc caused a decrease in cadmium uptake and an increase in copper accumulation. The presence of copper resulted in depressed cadmium accumulation while zinc accumulation increased. Cadmium tended to enhance zinc accumulation, but copper accumulation was only affected to any great extent when zinc was also present.     

Accumulation of cadmium in the mussel Mytilus edulis: kinetics and importance of uptake via food and sea water

In a short-term (162 h) accumulation experiment with mussels Mytilus edulis exposed to 100 ppb Cd and fed algal cells (Phaeodactylum tricornutum) in 1986, it was found that uptake via food played an insignificant role compared to direct uptake from ambient water (19 S). From measurements of the filtration rate and Cd uptake rate, it was estimated that the fraction of Cd taken up per liter of water filtered was about 0.15%. The initial uptake of Cd was linear with time and about three times higher in fed than in starved mussels. From the measured uptake of Cd in starved mussels collected in 1982 and exposed to 10, 100 and 200 ppb in long-term experiments (up to 242 d), it was found that the Cd Accumulation rate was not linear with time, and that the Cd uptake was not directly proportional with the exposure concentration. Values as high as 100 to 1 300 ppm Cd (dry wt of soft parts) were measured. It was found that the Cd elimination rate was not directly proportional with the Cd body burden in long-term exposed mussels, thus indicating that a certain fraction of Cd may have been immobilized to metallothioneins.     

Variability in dry weight and vertical distributions of decapod larvae in the Irish Sea and North Sea during the spring

Accumulation of waterborne cadmium in Littorina littorea, Mytilus edulis and Carcinus maenas (collected in 1988 and 1989 around the island of Funen, Denmark) was investigated in a matrix of salinities (10 to 30) and calcium concentrations (2.9 to 8.9 mM Ca⁺⁺). Cadmium accumulation rates in soft parts of L. littorina, soft parts and shells of M. edulis and whole bodies and exoskeletons of C. maenas decreased with increasing salinity. Changes in the calcium concentrations accounted for 72% of the salinity effect on cadmium accumulation rates in L. littorina, whereas calcium concentrations had little or no effect on cadmium accumulation in M. edulis. Cadmium accumulation in the whole body of C. maenas was affected equally by calcium concentrations and total salinity, whereas accumulation in the exoskeleton was mainly affected by changes in total salinity. Individual variability in cadmium accumulation in the organs of C. maenas was greater than the variation attributable either to changes in ambient calcium concentrations or total salinity. An appreciable amount of the inter-individual variability in the cadmium accumulation in all three species was correlated with wet:dry weight ratios of the tissues and size of the organisms.     

Sorption du cadmium par une population de la diatomée Phaeodactylum tricornutum en culture

The uptake of cadmium by the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum (Bohlin) maintained in batch culture was measured as a function of successive growth stages of the diatom, and of the chemical form of cadmium in the culture medium (10 g Cd.l^-1). The relative importance of adsorption and absorption of cadmium by the diatom was evaluated. When cadmium was chelated by ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) the uptake was negligible. In the absence of a chelating agent the uptake varied with the growth phase of the culture, and the major part of the uptake was by adsorption. Two opposite phenomena seen to be responsible for the processes observed: adsorption of cadmium on the cell walls followed by a gradual elution (desorption) by external metabolites.     

Accumulation of cadmium from contaminated water and sediment by the shrimp Callianassa australiensis

The burrowing marine shrimp Callianassa australiensis (Dana) was collected from an uncontaminated area in Western Port, Victoria, Australia in 1977. The shrimp were exposed to cadmium-contaminated water and sediment for 8 wk. The concentrations ranged from 0.5 to 63 g Cd 1^-1 for water and 0.5 to 63 g Cd g^-1 for sediment. The shrimp accumulated cadmium from water at a rate commensurate with increases in the concentration of cadmium in water and the duration of the experiment. Although the cadmium concentration in the sediments was 10³ times higher than that in water, it hat no effect on cadmium uptake by the shrimp. The concentration factors decreased with increasing concentration of cadmium in water but increased as the duration of exposure increased. The shrimp dry weight decreased with increasing concentration of cadmium in water and duration of exposure. As was the case with cadmium uptake by the shrimp, these two factors acted interactively on the shrimp dry weight, but the third factor, concentration of cadmium in sediment, had no effect.     

Silicon and the ecology of marine plankton diatoms. II. Silicate-uptake kinetics in five diatom species

The variation of the rate of silicate uptake with varying silicate concentration in the medium was investigated in short-term experiments with the following marine diatom species:Skeletonema costatum, Thalassiosira pseudonana, T. decipiens, Ditylum brightwellii, andLicmophora sp. The uptake conformed to Michaelis-Menten kinetics only after a correction had been made for reactive silicate that apparently could not be utilized by the diatoms. The magnitude of this correction was in the range of 0.3 to 1.3 g-at Si/l. Mean values of the half-saturation constant of silicate uptake were calculated for the different species. The lowest value was found inS. costatum (0.80 g-at Si/l) and the highest inT. decipiens (3.37 g-at Si/l). Growth limitation by low silicate concentrations could be a cause of species succession in marine plankton-diatom blooms.     

Impact of a temporal salinity decrease on growth and nitrogen metabolism of the marine diatom Skeletonema costatum in continuous cultures

In 1987 effects of salinity fluctuations on growth of the centric diatom Skeletonema costatum (Greville) Cleve, isolated from the brackish Krammer estuary (SW Netherlands) in 1981, were investigated. Continuous cultures (12 h light: dark cycle) of S. costatum were adapted to constant salinity in natural (16.1) and synthetic (13.5) media. For several days the ammonium-limited cultures were exposed to a salinity fluctuation (minimum 4.8). Decreasing salinity caused an inhibition of photosynthesis, dark respiration and cell growth. Cellular pools of glucose decreased. While the carbohydrate content remained constant, the protein content increased slightly. Net carbon fixation was more inhibited than nitrogen assimilation. Ammonium accumulated during a salinity decrease; a total decline of the overcapacity of ammonium uptake was noticed and nitrogen limitation was relieved. Amino acid pools decreased, probably as a result of excretion (osmoregulation). The enzymes invoilved in ammonium assimilation showed an increased activity. Cellular activities were resumed during a salinity increase. Chlorophyll a increased; photosynthesis, ammonium uptake and growth were stimulated. The ammonium uptake capacity recovered completely; glutamic acid accumulation and increased glutamate-dehydrogenase (GDH) activity indicated supplementary ammonium assimilation via GDH. The activities of glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase (GS/GOGAT) and GDH stabilized, and the cells returned to steady state under ammonium limitation.Communication no. 426 Delta Institute for Hydrobiological Research, Yerseke, The Netherlands     

Effects of in situ tidal salinity fluctuations on osmotic and lonic composition of body fluid in Southeastern Alaska Rocky intertidal fauna

Tidal fluctuations in salinity and temperature were monitored at a location on Lynn Canal, north of Juneau, Alaska. Organisms were collected from 4 tidal levels during each slack water over a period of 24 h. Body-fluid milliosmolality as well as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and chloride levels were determined. Mytilus edulis were collected at the +1.0 m tidal level, where ambient salinity ranged from 7.9 to 25.1% and body fluids from 356±62 to 730±17 mOsm/kg water. Cucumaria vegea and Katherina tunicata were collected at the +0.6 m level, where ambient salinity ranged from 13.5 to 24.9 and body fluids from 461±27 to 662±50 and 443±31 to 616±38 mOsm/kg water, respectively. Eupentacta quinquesemita and Evasterias troschelii were collected at the -0.9 m level, where ambient salinity ranged from 11.0 to 28.2 and body fluids from 504±32 to 632±51 and 316±31 to 664±37 mOsm/kg water, respectively. Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis were collected subtidally at the -3.7 m level, where ambient salinity ranged from 14.1 to 28.0 and perivisceral fluids from 448±35 to 661±51 mOsm/kg water. Ion levels of the perivisceral fluid of c. vegae were not determined. Potassium appeared to be regulated by all animals except Evasterias troschelii. Little regulation occurred for calcium, magnesium, sodium and chloride by the organisms. Eupentacta quinquesemita appeared to be regulating all ions determined, but this may have been due to its microhabitat. Water temperature cycled inversely to salinity at all tidal levels. Ambient-water sodium, chloride and calcium levels deviated from levels that would be expected upon dilution of seawater with deionized water. There was not indication that body-fluid osmoconcentration of the species collected intertidally increased on exposure to air.Communicated by J.S. Pearse, Santa Cruz     

Uptake of L-valine and other amino acids by the polychaete Nereis virens

For valine uptake by the polychaete Nereis virens Sars, the kinetic constants were: V _max=355 nmol g^-1 fresh weight h^-1, K _m=20 M. Leucine and some other amino acids acted as partial inhibitors of valine uptake. Valine uptake rate was 78% higher at 21.5 S than at 14 S. The major portion of valine absorbed by the polychaete could be extracted as free valine, with 6.5 to 15.6% being respired, and 3.6 to 9.5% incorporated into proteins. Calculations indicate that 7 to 12% of the metabolism of N. virens may be sustained by uptake of glycine and aspartic acid from natural concentrations. It is suggested that uptake of amino acids by this worm is important in the nitrogen cycling of marine sediments.     

Vanadium transfer in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis

Radiotracers were used to study processes controlling the accumulation and elimination of vanadium in the Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Vanadium uptake rates varied inversely with both salinity and vanadium concentration in water, but were independent of temperature. After a 3 wk exposure to ⁴⁸V, the highest concentration factors were found in the byssus (1900) with much lower values computed for shell ( 70) and soft tissues (5). More than 90% of the total ⁴⁸V accumulated was fixed to shell, suggesting that uptake is primarily a result of surface sorption processes. Much of the vanadium in shell was firmly bound to the periostracum and was not easily removed by acid leaching. Food-chain experiments indicated that the assimilation coefficient for ingested vanadium is low (7%) and that the assimilated fraction is rapidly excreted from the mussel. These findings coupled with knowledge of in situ and experimentally-derived vanadium concentration-factors have allowed a preliminary assessment of the relative importance of the food and water pathways in the contamination of mussels under conditions of acute and chronic exposure. Contaminated mussels transferred to clean sea water lost ⁴⁸V at rates that depended upon temperature but were largely unaffected by either salinity or by vanadium levels in mussel tissues. Total vanadium depuration was slow and was governed by loss from a slowly-exchanging compartment with a characteristic half-time of about 100 d. Individual mussel tissues were analyzed for stable vanadium and the possibility of using these tissues, particularly the byssus, as bioindicators of ambient vanadium levels in the marine environment is also discussed.     

Salinity and nutrient effects on the induction of the galactose permease system in a psychrophilic marine vibrio

An Antarctic psychrophilic marine Vibrio species was isolated having the inducible ability to accumulate nonmetabolizable thiomethyl-14C--galactopyranoside (14C-TMG) through a galactose permease system. Induction of 14C-TMG uptake was found to have a salinity requirement which was higher than that required for uptake. At the optimum salinity, galactose and fucose were the primary inducers. Lactose produced a comparable induction but only at higher concentrations, whereas glucose did not cause induction. The initial rate of 14C-TMG uptake exhibited saturation kinetics with an apparent Km value of 4.8 x 10^–6M. An amino acid, in addition to the inducer, was required for induction which could not be replaced by glycerol or galactose. Evidence is presented which indicates that the uptake of 14C-TMG is energy-dependent and that nutrient availability is more important than salinity for induction and uptake under conditions which would normally be found in the oceanic environment.Technical Paper No. 4911, Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.     

Patterns of micro- and meiofaunal abundance in marine sediments,measured with the adenosine triphosphate assay

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) measurements are used to determine vertical and seasonal distributions of microorganisms and meiofauna in sediments from a 14 m-deep mud bottom in central Long Island Sound on 12 sampling dates from April 1975 to October 1976. Below the topmost 1 cm of sediment, ATP measurements can be useful in estimating and comparing standing stocks of microorganisms and meiofauna. In the top 1 cm, however, large quantities of newly settled bivalves (Yoldia limatula, Nucula annulata, and Mulinia lateralis) and juvenile polychaetes (Owenia fusiformis) in summer and fall months account for total ATP concentrations. The ATP content of individual meiofauna ranges from 1.97 ng individual copepod nauplius^-1 to 190.7±60 ng individual M. lateralis ^-1. In general, the total ATP content of individual polychaetes and bivalves is much higher than that of individuals of other groups. However, on a mg ATP per g wet or dry tissue basis, the ATP content of micro- and meiofaunal taxa are not significantly different. In addition to providing a means for comparing micro- and meiofaunal standing stocks, ATP measurements permit examination of the relative contribution of different meiofauna to the total living biomass of meiofauna in sediments. Total sediment ATP concentrations are greatest in the top 1 cm at all seasons, and decrease with increasing depth in the sediment. Annual concentrations in the topmost centimeter average 4.22 g g dry sediment^-1 and range seasonally from 1.09 to 7.64 g g dry sediment^-1. At a depth of 10 cm, values average 0.16 and range from 0.019 to 0.35 g g dry sediment^-1. High ATP concentrations in surface sediment reflect high concentrations of microorganisms and meiofauna at the sediment-water interface. The top 2 cm of sediment contain 71% of all meiofauna, with 41% occurring in the topmost cm. In general, densities are lowest in the winter and highest during the spring and summer, averaging 490 individuals 10 cm^-2, and varying from 87 to 1366 individuals 10 cm^-2. Because of wide variation in recruitment patterns of the benthos in Long Island Sound, the extremes of the range in meiofaunal densities can be observed in the same month in two different years. In order to monitor and compare standing stocks of organisms less than 1 mm in size in sediments, the ATP assay can save hours of processing time compared with alternate methods such as direct counts.     

The effect of chelating agents on the uptake and accumulation of cadmium by Mytilus edulis

The uptake, storage and excretion of cadmium by the common mussel Mytilus edulis (L.) has been studied at sub-lethal concentrations using the radioactive isotope ^115mCd as a marker. After an initial lag period, the uptake at low concentrations in sea water is linear with time and directly proportional to the sea water concentration, with a maximum concentration factor of 165 at 0.7 g Cd/ml sea water. A decrease occurs at higher concentrations indicating saturation of the available binding capacity. Prior complexation of the cadmium with either EDTA, humic and alginic acids or pectin doubles both the rate of accumulation and the final tissue concentrations (order: kidneyviscera>gillsmantle>muscle) and eliminates the lag period, suggesting that ionic cadmium must first be complexed before uptake can occur. A mechanism for this effect, which may involve thionein, is described. The rate of excretion of cadmium is 18 times slower than that of uptake, with the major route via the kidney but not via the byssal threads as with particulate iron. The need to detoxify and store cadmium by an immobilization mechanism is a consequence of this slower rate of elimination.     

Zooplankton of the Bristol Channel and Severn Estuary. The distribution of four copepods in relation to salinity

The seasonal variations in distribution and abundance of the common zooplankton species in the Bristol Channel and Severn Estuary were related to the salinity regimes observed over the period November 1973 to February 1975. The dominant constituents in all regions were the calanoid copepods, which reached maximum densities in July: approximately 100 times their winter levels. Four zooplankton assemblages were recognised using an objective classification program which computed similarity coefficients and used group-average sorting. The assemblages existed along the salinity gradient observed from the Severn Estuary to the Celtic Sea. The assemblages were classified as true estuarine, estuarine and marine, euryhaline marine and stenohaline marine and were characterized by the copepods Eurytemora affinis (Poppe) (<30S), Acartia bifilosa var. inermis (rose) (27 to 33.5S), Centropages hamatus (Lilljeborg) (31 to 35S) and Calanus helgolandicus (Claus) (>33S), respectively.     

Kinetic measurements of metal accumulation in two marine macroalgae

 We measured the uptake kinetics of four metals (Cd, Cr, Se and Zn) in two marine macroalgae (the green alga Ulva lactuca and the red alga Gracilaria blodgettii). Metal uptake generally displayed a linear pattern with increasing exposure time. With the exception of Cr, which exhibited comparable uptake rate constants at different concentrations, uptake rate constants of Cd, Se and Zn decreased with increasing metal concentration, indicating that the seaweeds had a higher relative uptake at lower metal concentration. Uptake of Cd and Zn was higher in U. lactuca than in G. blodgettii, whereas uptake of Cr and Se was comparable between the two species. Only Cd and Zn uptake in U. lactuca was significantly inhibited by dark exposure. A decrease in salinity from 28 to 10‰ enhanced the uptake of Cd, Cr, Se and Zn in U. lactuca 1.9-, 3.0-, 3.6-, and 1.9-fold, respectively. In G. blodgettii, Cd uptake increased twofold when salinity was decreased from 28 to 10‰, whereas uptake of Cr and Zn was not significantly affected by salinity change. The calculated depuration rate constants of metals in U. lactuca were 0.01 d⁻¹ for Cd, 0.05 to 0.08 d⁻¹ for Cr, 0.14 to 0.16 d⁻¹ for Se, and 0.12 to 0.15 d⁻¹ for Zn, and were relatively independent of the metal body burden in the algae. The predicted bioconcentration factor was 3 × 10⁴ for Cd, 2 × 10³ for Cr, 40 to 150 for Se, and 1 to 2 × 10⁴ for Zn in U. lactuca. Our kinetic study suggested that U. lactuca would be a good biomonitor of Cr and Zn contamination in coastal waters. Received: 14 September 1998 / Accepted: 29 May 1999     

Accumulation of arsenic from water and food by Littorina littoralis and Nucella lapillus

The mechanism, and factors influencing the process of arsenic accumulation and elimination in a food chain [Fucus spiralis (L.) Littorina littoralis (L.) Nucella lapillus (L.)] were examined using the radioisotope ⁷⁴As. Organisms were collected during 1978 from the estuary of Restronguet. Creek in southwest England. Arsenate uptake by L. littoralis increased linearly with increasing external arsenate concentration up to ca. 500 g 1^-1 but was independent at higher arsenate concentrations. Arsenic uptake by L. littoralis was suppressed by metabolic inhibition (potassium cyanide) and lowered salinity. At 26°C, arsenic uptake was twice that at 10°C. L. littoralis accumulated 1o times more arsenic from solution than N. lapillus. Approximately 91% of ⁷⁴As accumulated from water by L. littoralis was found in the soft tissues, especially the digestive gland and gonads, but in N. lapillus 85% was associated with the shell. Arsenate uptake was twice that of arsenite in L. littoralis. Phosphate at normal environmental levels (2.4 M) did not influence the accumulation of arsenic by L. littoralis, although concentration-dependent inhibition of arsenic uptake was found between 8 and 17 M. Compared with macroalgae, the marine snails exhibit a much greater ability for eliminating arsenic. In L. littoralis the elimination of ⁷⁴As absorbed from sea water occurred in three stages, each contining equal amounts of the initial ⁷⁴As pool, with biological half-lives of 4, 13 and 47 d. A biphasic pattern of elimination was found for food-labelled snails (L. littoralis and N. lapillus). The rapid compartment, contributing a third of the arsenic, had a half-life of 4 d, while that of the slow compartment was 12 to 13 d. Fed snails eliminated arsenic more rapidly and extensively than starved individuals. All arsenic in the tissues of the snails studied was available for exchange with that in the environment. The diet is by far the major source of arsenic in L. littoralis and N. lapillus, which appear equally efficient at assimilating arsenic from food.     

Effects of salinity on the uptake of lead and cadmium by two mangrove species Rhizophora apiculata Bl. and Avicennia alba Bl.

The uptake of lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) by Rhizophora apiculata and Avicennia alba under various salinity levels was examined using hydroponic cultivations. After 3 months of exposure at four levels of Pb (0, 0.03, 0.3 and 3 mg·L^?1) and four levels of Cd (0, 0.005; 0.05 and 0.5 mg·L^?1) at different salinities (0, 15 and 30), uptake of the metals was shown to be differently affected by salinity. For uptake of Pb by R. apiculata, the salinity effect was not significant for the leaves and was most significant in the stem, whereas for A. alba, the effect of salinity was significant only in the stem. Uptake of Pb in the roots and stems of both species was similar, but a higher concentration was recorded in the leaves of A. alba. Salinity was shown to affect the uptake of Cd by all tissues of R. apiculata, but most significantly roots. For A. alba, salinity significantly affects the total uptake of Cd, but this is most significant in the roots. The two mangrove species demonstrated different mechanisms of metal distribution into their organs which may be related to different adaptation mechanisms to saline conditions.     

Experimental studies on physiological and behavioural response mechanisms of Nitocra spinipes (Crustacea: Harpacticoidea) from brackish-water rockpools

Volume regulation and salinity-preference tests have been made on Nitocra spinipes Boeck (Crustacea, Harpacticoidea). This species is often dominant in Baltic brackish-water rockpools. The investigation attempts to evaluate the relative importance of some of the different response mechanisms of this species to salinity changes in relation to the unstable environmental conditions of the rockpools. Volume-regulation experiments have shown that N. spinipes is capable of hypoosmotic and probably hyperosmotic regulation in the tested salinity range of 1 to 20 S. In laboratory cultures, reproduction, hatching and moulting oecurred in salinities ranging from 0.5 to 30 S. Preference experiments showed that N. spinipes has a very weak behavioural response even to very large variations in salinity concentrations between the alternative; a significant choice could only be found under conditions which never occur in the natural biotope. It is therefore concluded that, in a biotope such as the rockpool, where salinity changes will affect the whole biotope rather than produce microclimatic variation, regulation and adaptation must have a higher ecological importance than escape responses.     

The effect of intensity and quality of illumination on the photosynthesis of some tropical marine phytoplankton

Using solar energy as a source of illumination, photosynthesis in 11 species of marine plankton algae was studied as a function of light intensity. From the photosynthesis-light curve for each organism, the saturation points (I _k ) in different organisms were determined. Among the diatoms and flagellates, the highest I _k (saturation point) values were found in Rhizosolenia styliformis and Dinophysis miles respectively. When the organisms were exposed to a portion of the visible spectrum starting from 700 m, the photosynthesis was found to be related to the radiant energy. The missing portions of the spectrum produced no significant change in the rate of photosynthesis. The photosynthetic response shown by the different organisms was strikingly similar, which signifies that, despite the qualitative dissimilarities which the organisms may possess in their pigment composition, they are capable of much chromatic adaptation.     

Diet and food preferences of the adult horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus in Delaware Bay,New Jersey,USA

Adult horseshoe crabs Limulus polyphemus (L.) feed on a wide variety of infaunal and epifaunal invertebrates during their spring spawning migration in Delaware Bay, New Jersey, USA. Comparison of the gut contents with estimates of available prey showed that the most abundant potential prey item, the bivalve Gemma gemma, was avoided. The thinner shelled but comparatively scarce clam Mulinia lateralis was a preferred prey item. In the laboratory, crabs fed on G. gemma when it was the only available item but not when M. lateralis or soft-shell clams, Mya arenaria, were offered in conjunction. Large M. lateralis (>10mm) were preferred to small M. lateralis; there was no discrimination between M. lateralis and M. arenaria of the same size. Male and female horseshoe crabs had similar gut contents and laboratory feeding preferences, despite the fact that females are larger than males. Crabs spawning later in the summer contained more food than did crabs collected at the peak of spawning activity.