Ecological and economic impacts of green roofs and permeable pavements at the city level: the case of Corvallis,Oregon

A city's spatial footprint is covered by extensive impervious building roofs and paved surfaces, which contribute to greater storm-water runoff, more surface pollutants, and less carbon sequestration, hence, worse ecosystem services. This research conducts an empirical study on the ecological and economic impacts of a citywide adoption of green roofs and permeable pavements in Corvallis, OR. The effects on ecosystem services of using green roofs and pervious pavements for a low impact development are modelled using Integrated Value of Ecosystem Services Trade-offs and compared to those from the City's current conventional development without green roofs and pervious pavements. The differences are analysed for ecological impact by storm-water yield, storm-water purification, and carbon sequestration and economic impact by a cost-benefit comparison. The results indicate that low impact development, especially intensive green roofs on commercial/industrial buildings and permeable pavements for parking lots, plays a significant role, even with a higher initial implementation cost, for long-term urban sustainability.     

A Comparison of Campfire Impacts and Policies in Seven Protected Areas

Using resource-monitoring data from seven protected areas, the effectiveness of three campfire policies—campfire ban, designated campfires, and unregulated campfires—were assessed based on the number of fire sites and the amount of tree damage. Results indicate that unregulated campfire policies permitted substantial numbers of fire sites and tree damage in campsites, although fire bans did not eliminate or even substantially decrease these problems. A designated campfire policy was effective in decreasing number of fire sites, but little difference was found among policies regarding tree damage. Given the importance of campfires to visitor experiences, campfire prohibitions could be viewed as unnecessarily restrictive based on their limited success in preventing resource damage. Conclusions encourage protected-area managers to consider designated campfire policies and prohibitions on axes, hatchets, and saws to better meet resource protection and visitor experience mandates.     

基于城乡统筹旅游服务型新型农村社区建设的研究

新型农村社区建设是改善农民的生产和生活环境,推进城乡关系良性互动与城乡一体化的有效途径。经实地调研考察确定规划区范围内共有旅游资源7大类、17个亚类、35个基本类型,结合秦皇岛柳河圈新农村建设规划的实践,提出应把新社区空间规划建设与旅游景区建设融于一体,将葡萄酒休闲旅游产业融合社区发展,新型社区住宅建设要彰显地方特色建设,社区产业规划、新社区文化规划应彰显旅游文化特色等具有本地区特色的新型农村社区的建设路径,以期促进秦皇岛农村社会经济的发展。     

ANALYSIS OF DATA FROM BIOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF STREAMS: DIVERSITY AND SAMPLE SIZE1

ABSTRACT: Brillouin's equation (H) for species diversity from information theory is to be preferred for the purposes of applied ecology over the equation of Shannon (H′) or the more commonly used approximate equation (H″). By its use, the difficult problem of delimiting the extent of the community being sampled in a stream survey can be avoided. Moreover, Brillouin's equation gives the exact diversity of the fully censused collection, whreas Shannon's diversity can only be approximated with a biased estimator. If we regard a sample as a message from the environment to the ecologist, Brillouin's equation is the proper one for computing its diversity. The product moment correlation coefficient between Brillouin's H for the total number of individuals from a group of samples and for randomly chosen subsets of 100 individuals from each sample was nearly as high as the correlation between H and H″ based on the total samples. This indicates that small sample sizes may give a useful diversity index. Replicated subsamples show that much smaller samples than are normally used can discriminate between communities from polluted and unpolluted environments. The use of smaller samples should reduce the cost of stream surveys.     

Human impacts on the stream-groundwater exchange zone

Active exchanges of water and dissolved material between the stream and groundwater in many porous sand- and gravel-bed rivers create a dynamic ecotone called the hyporheic zone. Because it lies between two heavily exploited freshwater resources—rivers and groundwater—the hyporheic zone is vulnerable to impacts coming to it through both of these habitats. This review focuses on the direct and indirect effects of human activity on ecosystem functions of the hyporheic zone. River regulation, mining, agriculture, urban, and industrial activities all have the potential to impair interstitial bacterial and invertebrate biota and disrupt the hydrological connections between the hyporheic zone and stream, groundwater, riparian, and floodplain ecosystems. Until recently, our scientific ignorance of hyporheic processes has perhaps excused the inclusion of this ecotone in river management policy. However, this no longer is the case as we become increasingly aware of the central role that the hyporheic zone plays in the maintenance of water quality and as a habitat and refuge for fauna. To fully understand the impacts of human activity on the hyporheic zone, river managers need to work with scientists to conduct long-term studies over large stretches of river. River rehabilitation and protection strategies need to prevent the degradation of linkages between the hyporheic zone and surrounding habitats while ensuring that it remains isolated from toxicants. Strategies that prevent anthropogenic restriction of exchanges may include the periodic release of environmental flows to flush silt and reoxygenate sediments, maintenance of riparian buffers, effective land use practices, and suitable groundwater and surface water extraction policies.     

Evaluating Aggregate Terrestrial Impacts of Road Construction Projects for Advanced Regional Mitigation

This study presents a GIS-based database framework used to assess aggregate terrestrial habitat impacts from multiple highway construction projects in California, USA. Transportation planners need such impact assessment tools to effectively address additive biological mitigation obligations. Such assessments can reduce costly delays due to protracted environmental review. This project incorporated the best available statewide natural resource data into early project planning and preliminary environmental assessments for single and multiple highway construction projects, and provides an assessment of the 10-year state-wide mitigation obligations for the California Department of Transportation. Incorporation of these assessments will facilitate early and more strategic identification of mitigation opportunities, for single-project and regional mitigation efforts. The data architecture format uses eight spatial scales: six nested watersheds, counties, and transportation planning districts, which were intersected. This resulted in 8058 map planning units statewide, which were used to summarize all subsequent analyses. Range maps and georeferenced locations of federally and state-listed plants and animals and a 55-class landcover map were spatially intersected with the planning units and the buffered spatial footprint of 967 funded projects. Projected impacts were summarized and output to the database. Queries written in the database can sum expected impacts and provide summaries by individual construction project, or by watershed, county, transportation district or highway. The data architecture allows easy incorporation of new information and results in a tool usable without GIS by a wide variety of agency biologists and planners. The data architecture format would be useful for other types of regional planning.     

Impact assessment of a hydroelectric project on the flora in the Western Himalayan region based on vegetation analysis and socio-economic studies

This study provides an overview of the impacts of a proposed hydroelectric power project in the Western Himalayan region in India, using a primary database on floristic diversity and vegetation analysis. The remote sensing data revealed that in the submergence zone only mixed deciduous forest that occupies 807.5 ha area and has a wood biomass volume of 4,027,503 m³ is likely to be lost due to impoundment. A total of 165 plant species found in the submergence zone also occur in the influence and free draining catchment area of the project. In the influence zone of the project area only one tree species (Acer oblongum) is found under conservation threat category, which is also present in the free draining catchment of the project. The project affected population (6716 people) residing in the submergence and influence zone depend upon the surrounding forests for fuel wood, fodder, wild edibles etc., and most likely they will settle in the nearby areas, thus mounting more pressure on residual forests of the influence zone for various forest products. Further, from the vegetation analysis it is evident that several tree species (e.g. Lannea coromandelica, Terminalia alata, T. bellerica etc.), may face more pressure from exploitation as they provide a number of useful products and are represented in lower numbers in the forests of the project area. To compensate for the loss of various goods and services provided by the forests falling in the submergence zone and to offset the increased pressure of the project affected families on the forests of influence zone, a biodiversity management plan is suggested incorporating socio-economic considerations.     

The nature of cumulative impacts on biotic diversity of wetland vertebrates

There is no longer any doubt that cumulative impacts have important effects on wetland vertebrates. Interactions of species diversity and community structure produce a complex pattern in which environmental impacts can play a highly significant role. Various examples show how wetlands maintain the biotic diversity within and among vertebrate populations, and some of the ways that environmental perturbations can interact to reduce this diversity.The trophic and habitat pyramids are useful organizing concepts. Habitat fragmentation can have severe effects at all levels, reducing the usable range of the larger habitat generalists while threatening the genetic integrity of small, isolated populations. The complexity of trophic interactions, and the propensity, or necessity, of vertebrates to switch from one food source to another—something we know little about—makes using food chain support as a variable for predicting environmental impacts very questionable.Historical instances illustrate the effects of the accumulation of impacts on vertebrates. At present it is nearly impossible to predict the result of three or more different kinds of perturbations, although long-range effects can be observed. One case in point is waterfowl; while their ingestion of lead shot, harvesting by hunters during migration, and loss of habitat have caused waterfowl populations to decline, the proportional responsibility of these factors has not been determined.Further examples show multiplicative effects of similar actions, effects with long time lags, diffuse processes in the landscape that may have concentrated effects on a component subsystem, and a variety of other interactions of increasing complexity. Not only is more information needed at all levels; impacts must be assessed on a landscape or regional scale to produce informed management decisions. I conclude that a system of replicate wetland reserves that are allowed to interact naturally with the surrounding landscape will be more effective in preserving biotic diversity than isolated sanctuaries.     

Vegetation associated with different walking track types in the Kosciuszko alpine area, Australia

Tourism infrastructure such as walking tracks can have negative effects on vegetation including in mountain regions. In the alpine area around continental Australia's highest mountain, Mt Kosciuszko (2228 m), there is a range of walking tracks (paved, gravel and raised steel mesh surfaces) in addition to an extensive network of informal/non-hardened tracks. Vegetation characteristics were compared between track types on/under tracks, on the track verge, and in the adjacent native vegetation. For a raised steel mesh walkway there was no difference in vegetation under the walkway, on the verge, and 3m away. In contrast, for a non-hardened track there was 35% bare ground on the track surface but no other detectable impacts. Gravel and paved tracks had distinct verges largely comprising bare ground and exotic species. For non-hardened tracks there was an estimated 270 m2 of disturbance per km of track. For wide gravel tracks the combined area of bare ground, exotic plants and gravel was estimated as 4290 m2 per km, while for narrow gravel tracks it was estimated as 2940 m2 per km. For paved tracks there was around 2680 m2 per km of damage. In contrast, there was no detectable effect of raised steel mesh walkway on vegetation highlighting some of the benefits of this surface over other track types.     

基于成本分析的西部生态补偿法律机制研究

建立和实施西部生态补偿机制,是加强西部生态建设和强化西部生态功能专业化服务的必由之路。生态系统服务补偿理论和自然资本理论为我们分析西部生态补偿提供了新的分析范式,西部生态补偿包括国家补偿、区域和流域补偿、自力补偿三个层次。其内部的成本关系包括生态服务利用成本关系、跨区域资源调配成本关系、生态工程实施成本关系、内部补偿成本关系等,基于成本分析基础上的三层次补偿关系协同发展是完善西部生态补偿法律机制的基本内容。     

An Event-Based Approach for Examining the Effects of Wildland Fire Decisions on Communities

Public concern over the consequences of forest fire to wildland interface communities has led to increased resources devoted to fire suppression, fuel treatment, and management of fire events. The social consequences of the decisions involved in these and other fire-related actions are largely unknown, except in an anecdotal sense, but do occur at a variety of temporal and social organizational scales. These consequences are not limited to the fire event itself. Preparation for the possibility of a fire, actions that suppression agencies take during a fire, and postfire decisions all have consequences, if unknown currently. This article presents an "event-based" approach that can be useful for constructing and systematic discussion about the consequences of wildland fire to human communities. For each of the three major periods within this approach, agencies, communities, and individuals make decisions and take actions that have consequences. The article presents an integrated, temporally based process for examining these consequences, which is similar to others developed in the natural hazards and disaster management literature.     

AN ASSESSMENT OF USES MADE OF A MULTIPURPOSE RESERVOIR'

ABSTRACT: Data were collected from residents of a rural community at two time periods to assess attitudes toward uses made of a reservoir which had been recently constructed in the area. The findings revealed that attitudes became significantly more favorable for flood control, water supply, and recreation uses of the reservoir. Attitudes toward fish and wildlife conservation use were not significantly different over time but these uses were perceived positively at both time periods. The data were also analyzed in the context of a vested interest perspective using cross-sectional design. The findings demonstrated that the theoretical model used to guide the investigation was quite useful in predicting attitudes toward the four uses examined.     

Capabilities and management utility of recreation impact monitoring programs

A recreation impact monitoring system was developed and applied in 1984–1986 and in 1991 to all backcountry river-accessed campsites within Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Results suggest that actions implemented by park managers in response to problems identified by the initial survey were highly effective in reducing resource degradation caused by camping. In particular, the elimination of some designated campsites and installation of anchored firegrates reduced the total area of disturbance by 50%. Firegrate installation provided a focal point that increased the concentration of camping activities, allowing peripheral areas to recover. As suggested by predictive models, additional resource degradation caused by increased camping intensities is more than offset by improvements in the condition of areas where use is eliminated. The capabilities and management utility of recreation impact monitoring programs, illustrated by the Delaware Water Gap monitoring program, are also presented and discussed.     

Predicting the economic and demographic impacts of long distance commuting in the resources sector: A Surat basin case study

Predicting the economic and demographic impacts of resource development on regional areas is difficult to assess because of limited availability of analysis, difficulties of predicting where workforce are likely to be based, and different impacts on communities because of variations in size and economic structures. In this study modelling has been employed to identify future employment and demographic impacts of future resource developments on communities in the Surat Basin in southern Queensland, Australia. The analysis summarises potential employment increases over multiple projects and uses multipliers from Input–Output models to assess likely impacts by local government area when future workforce might commute to or live locally in the region. The results demonstrate that recent moves to commuting workforces limit the economic impacts on local and regional communities in complex ways.     

A survey of trampling effects on vegetation and soil in eight tropical and subtropical sites

Impacts of recreation, especially of vehicles and walkers, were studied in eight tropical or subtropical public sites in Queensland. In each site, plant species number, vegetation cover, plant height, and species cover and frequency in untrampled, slightly trampled, moderately trampled, and heavily trampled areas were counted or measured. Soil penetration resistance and soil organic matter were also recorded. In two of these eight sites, plant cover, height, leaf length, leaf width, and leaf thickness of each species were measured. Some species of grass such asCynodon dactylon were present in areas subject to all degrees of trampling impact and some tussock species, particularlyEragrostis tenuifolia andSporobolus elongatus, were only present in trampled areas. Woody plants occurred only on untrampled areas. The number of species and all the vegetative measurements mentioned above were reduced as wear increased. Plant height was reduced dramatically by even light trampling. Tall plants appeared to be more sensitive to trampling than short plants. No clear relationship between soil organic matter content and trampling intensity was found.     

THE SOCIAL IMPACT OF RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTION IN THE URBAN FRINGE: A TEN-YEAR COMPARISON1

ABSTRACT This paper examines the social impact of reservoir construction on a rural community group located in the urban fringe of a major metropolitan area in central Ohio. The study data were collected at three intervals over a ten-year period (1970, 1974, 1980). Evaluation of resident opinions in the affected community revealed significant attitude differences over time for four of the five variables measured. The findings revealed that the study group desired more social stability but had accommodated the changes experienced to date. Responses to the attitude scales showed that the people in the study group were well integrated and were closely identified with each other at all three test periods. Attitudes toward the lake project were significantly more positive over time, and in 1980 the collective community group held a basically neutral attitude about the lake. The development agency was also perceived more positively over time.     

State-of-the-art approach to hazardous waste site characterizations

A state-of-the-art characterization of a hazardous waste site provides significant benefits over a conventional program because it defines the hydrogeologic framework that governs contaminant transport, rather than merely confirming the existence of contamination State-of-the-art programs are commonly believed to be substantially more expensive than conventional programs. Such is not the case, however, for properly planned investigations Indeed, a state-of-the-art program can be substantially cheaper than a conventional one in some circumstances Costs remain comparable even under conditions unfavorable to the comparison These conclusions are illustrated by examples of field activities conducted at a variety of study sites.Publication No. 3360, Environmental Sciences Division, ORNL.Operated by Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc., under contract DE-AC05-840R21400 with the US Department of Energy.     

Empowering communities – the role of intermediary organisations in community renewable energy projects in Indonesia

Community Renewable Energy (CRE) has been defying conventional energy systems for decades, though only recently it started to feature in academic and institutional discourses. Despite its new appeal, the literature on the impacts and factors influencing CRE projects is still scarce and builds mostly on studies in Europe and North America. In developing countries, where electricity access is low and energy poverty is prevalent, CRE can offer interesting opportunities for rural electrification and added benefits. The objective of this study is to assess the impacts of community-owned renewable energy projects and identify the internal and external drivers and barriers to their success. An exploratory case-study approach was used for collecting data, through interviews and observations, in two community micro-hydro projects in Indonesia. The results showed positive socio-economic impacts that exceed electrification benefits, and the reported success of community energy projects can be traced back to a combination of community-level as well as external factors. Yet, particularly important is the role of the intermediary organisation (Ibeka) in building communities’ ownership, enhancing (technical, entrepreneurial and managerial) capacities, transferring knowledge and technology, establishing innovative financing models and shaping policy. Such organisations are critical in bridging external and internal factors and thus represent a key element in integrating the proposed analytical frameworks.