Time preference,the environment and the interests of future generations

The behavior of individuals currently living will generally have long-term consequences that affect the well-being of those who will come to live in the future. Intergenerational interdependencies of this nature raise difficult moral issues because only the current generation is in a position to decide on actions that will determine the nature of the world in which future generations will live. Although most are willing to attach some weight to the interests of future generations, many would argue that it is not necessary to treat these interests as equivalent to those of the current generation. A common approach in this context is to use a system of discounting to evaluate future benefits and harms. This paper assesses the logic of discounting drawing on the writings of economists and philosophers. Much of the economic literature concerns the choice of an appropriate social discount rate. The social discount rate can be taken to reflect beliefs about the rights of future generations, a subject that has been extensively debated in the phioosophic literature. The writings of both economists and philosophers concerned with the weight to attach to the interests of future generations are reviewed and evaluated in this paper and the implications for environmental policy are discussed.     

The mining industry and the natural environment

Environmental considerations have become central to future developments in the Australian mineral industry and have affected the level of federal involvement in the industry. The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is now an important stage in the assessment of proposed mining projects. This paper examines two major federally sponsored inquiries into Australian mining projects — Fraser Island sand-mining and the Ranger uranium project — and then discusses subsequent events and future prospects.     

Blue space: The importance of water for preference,affect, and restorativeness ratings of natural and built scenes

Although theorists have suggested that aquatic environments or “blue space” might have particular restorative potential, to date there is little systematic empirical research on this issue. Indeed the presence of water has, unintentionally, been a confounding factor in research comparing people’s reactions to built and natural environments. Whereas aquatic features (rivers, lakes, coasts) are frequently present in visual stimuli representing natural environments they are rarely incorporated in stimuli portraying built environments. As many towns are, for good reason, located near water this is a potentially significant oversight. The current research collated a set of 120 photographs of natural and built scenes, half of which contained “aquatic” elements. Proportions of “aquatic”/“green”/“built” environments in each scene (e.g. 1/3rd, 2/3rds) were also standardised. Two studies investigated preferences (attractiveness, willingness to visit and willingness to pay for a hotel room with the view), affect and perceived restorativeness ratings for these photographs. As predicted, both natural and built scenes containing water were associated with higher preferences, greater positive affect and higher perceived restorativeness than those without water. Effect sizes were consistently large. Intriguingly, images of “built” environments containing water were generally rated just as positively as natural “green” space. We propose a number of avenues for further research including exploration of the mechanisms underlying these effects.     

Preconceptions of students about the natural urban environment in a small Spanish city

Summary The preconceptions of secondary students from a small Spanish city, mainly about natural aspects, have been studied. The main characteristic of their conceptions about the urban natural environment was that it was always linked to negative aspects and was generally seen as something essentially problematic. Moreover, it seems that their knowledge of smaller living beings, of wild animals, plants and fungi, was worse than for other urban living beings. The analysis of these alternative conceptions has led the authors to propose some recommendations for curricular design and development for schools in urban environments.Dr Mercedes Suárez is an educationalist and Professor of Curriculum in the Faculty of Humanities in the University. Emilia Nogueiras has a degree in Biology and Education and is a science teacher in the High School in Orense.     

What people think about the environment and its relationship to their health: perceptions of health at different scales of environment in Hamilton,Ontario

This study examines lay perceptions of the environment and its perceived relation to health at three scales: the environment at large, the neighbourhood, and the home. Interviews were conducted with residents from two contrasting neighbourhoods in the industrial city of Hamilton, Canada. The results reveal variations in perceptions of the environment–health link between residents in the two study neighbourhoods as well as across the different scales. Air pollution and proximity to industry were frequently implicated in lay understandings of the general and neighbourhood environments. In contrast, the home environment was seen as relatively insulated and safe. Furthermore, personal control mechanisms (e.g. cleanliness) were believed to mitigate adverse health impacts in the home and yard while the general environment was seen to be outside of such control. The significance of the findings is discussed in terms of future research and policy relevance.     

Optimization of the electrocoagulation process for the removal of copper, lead and cadmium in natural waters and simulated wastewater

Chemical, electrochemical and flow variables were optimized to examine the effectiveness of the electrocoagulation process for the removal of copper, lead and cadmium. The electrochemical process, which uses electrodes of commercial laminate steel, was applied to simulated wastewater containing 12 mg dm(-3) of copper, 4 mg dm(-3) of lead and 4 mg dm(-3) of cadmium. The optimum conditions for the process were identified as pH=7, flow rate=6.3 cm(3) min(-1) and a current density between 31 and 54 A m(-2). When the electrode geometric area and time of electrolysis reached critical values, the copper removal reached a maximum value of 80%. A linear relationship was identified between the current density and the mass of generated sludge. In addition, a linear relationship was found between specific energy consumption and current density. The results of this investigation provide important data for the development of an industrial-scale electrolytic reactor.     

Children's reasoning about poverty, physical deterioration, danger, and retribution in neighborhood contexts

This study examined children's moral, social and personal reasoning patterns about different neighborhood contexts. Three hundred and seventy-seven participants were selected from grades 2, 4, 6, and 8. Participants were shown 2 sets of photographs depicting the exact same houses and neighborhoods. One photograph displayed higher levels of physical incivilities and the other displayed higher levels of territoriality and place attachments. The vast majority of participants made strong social attributions of both danger and poverty towards physical contexts, depending on the level of incivilities depicted in the photographs. Moreover, an overwhelming majority gave justifications that fell into the moral domain. For most of the participants, the immorality of retribution overrode the negative attributions surrounding context. However, for those that approved of retribution behaviors, the physical setting appeared to influence their judgments. The findings suggest that the concept of extreme poverty (as represented by physical incivilities) and danger are fused at the cognitive level through linked interpretations of the same environmental cues.     

Integrated mediterranean programmes and the natural environment: A case study in Greece

Summary A pilot action forming part of the Integrated Mediterranean Programmes (IMPs) was carried out in Prespa National Park, Greece, to improve the socio-economic conditions in the area and to develop the agriculture, fisheries, manufacturing and tourism. A study on the environment of the park was carried out as part of this Programme. The study evaluated the natural conditions in the area, assessed the effects of the proposed operations on the environment, suggested opportunities for socio-economic improvement and provided guidelines for the organisation of the National Park. This paper presents certain aspects of this study and describes the mechanisms and conflicts attached to environmental conservation during implementation of the IMP.Evaluation of natural conditions was made possible by studying the land cover/use changes between 1945 and 1984 using aerial photographs. It showed a continuing concentration of land use activities in the wetland, which is the nucleus of the park. The most alarming findings were of soil erosion on the watershed, accelerating ageing and eutrophication of the lake, and destruction of the wet meadows. Evaluation of the latter revealed their remarkable biological value as feeding and resting habitats of the rare waterbird species.Assessment of the effects of the projected operations on the environment was accompanied by suggestions of alleviation measures. Further development of agriculture and an expansion of the irrigation system were expected to have a severe impact on the wetland and increase the eutrophic level of the lake. Measures for cultural practices, policy and education of the farmers were suggested. It was recognised that the projected fish breeding station would also have adverse effects on the wetland, the lake and its fisheries. Construction of the hatchery on the particular site chosen by the authorities was to cause major environmental degradation in the park.Despite the documentation provided, proposals stemming from the study and mitigation measures were disregarded. Implementation of the IMP operations had detrimental ecological effects in the area. From the first stages of the Programme, and throughout its implementation, secrecy prevailed in the procedures. There was no participation of the public nor of the local government. Lack of coordination appeared between the various levels of administration nationally and within the European Community (EC). Agencies concerned with the environment lost their jurisdiction in the area, as all decision-making was undertaken in Athens by a Ministry relatively insensitive to environmental issues. Implementation of the IMP in Prespa violated national and EC legislation as well as international treaties concerning the environment. The development plan had been prepared without integrating conservation and development while no concern was given to the impact on the environment. Lessons learned from the Prespa case should be used to improve IMPs and make development sustainable.Dr Myrto Pyrovetsi obtained her doctorate at Michigan State University, USA and is now an Assistant Professor in the Department of Biology at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.     

Building a model of commitment to the natural environment to predict ecological behavior and willingness to sacrifice

We examined the connection between individuals’ relationships with the natural environment and their environmental behaviors with a focus on commitment to the environment, defined as psychological attachment and long-term orientation to the natural world. Commitment is theorized to emerge from structural interdependence with the environment and to lead to pro-environmental behaviors. Close relationships research has identified three key antecedents to commitment (satisfaction, alternatives, and investments). We developed environment-specific measures of these constructs, and factor analysis verified three distinct factors. A path analysis revealed that satisfaction with the environment and investments in the environment, but not alternatives to the environment, predicted commitment to the environment. Moreover, commitment mediated the effects of satisfaction and investments on general ecological behavior and willingness to sacrifice for the environment. In regression analyses, commitment predicted general ecological behavior and willingness to sacrifice for the environment, even when controlling for ecological worldview, inclusion of nature in the self, connectedness to nature, and environmental identity. Individuals who are satisfied with and invested in the natural world are likely to be committed to the environment and act with the well-being of the environment in mind.     

Engaging with the natural environment: The role of affective connection and identity

Research has shown pro-environmental behaviour to be positively associated with the strength of emotional connection towards the natural environment. The present study (N=199) investigated the predictive utility of an extended model of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) [ Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behaviour. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211] for people's intentions to engage with the natural environment. It was hypothesised that both affective connection and identification with the natural environment would contribute significantly to the prediction of people's intentions. A secondary hypothesis was that participants who had grown up in rural areas would report more positive orientations towards engaging with the natural environment than would urban participants. The research found that affective connection was a significant independent predictor of intentions to engage with the natural environment. Environmental identity was only a significant predictor in the absence of affective connection in the regression model. As predicted, rural and urban participants differed significantly along the measured variables.     

Application of the pressure-state-response framework to perceptions reporting of the state of the New Zealand environment

The Pressure-State-Response framework for environmental reporting was used as a basis to develop a long-term study of people's perceptions of the state of the New Zealand environment. A postal survey of 2000 people, randomly drawn from the New Zealand electoral roll was used to gather data--an effective response rate of 48% was achieved. A range of different resource sectors was examined. We report on New Zealand's air, native animals and plants, and marine fisheries, as well as New Zealand compared to other developed countries. Respondents generally considered that in terms of pressures, states and responses, New Zealand was performing better than other developed countries and that for the resources examined here overall performance was in the adequate to good range, except for marine fisheries. The survey appears to be a useful tool for linking perceptions data into State of the Environment reporting. It also helps identify policy issues where perceptions do not match other scientific evidence or management initiatives. Such findings can be important for the successful implementation of policy measures.     

Local people's perceptions of participating in conservation in a heritage site: A case study of the Wuyishan Scenery District cultural and natural heritage site in Southeastern China

The perceptions and attitudes of local people in heritage sites strongly influence their behaviour related to protecting heritage resources and improving management. In this study, we collected pertinent data through a questionnaire and group discussions to examine local people's attitudes and perceptions toward participation in heritage protection in Wuyishan Scenery District (WSD). Logistic regression was used to identify the factors that influence local people's perceptions of heritage protection behaviours. The results indicate that education level is the most critical factor in local people's initiatives to protect heritage resources. Local people with higher education levels pay more attention to the status of WSD and behave more positively with regard to conservation. Gender and income are relatively important factors in perceptions of heritage. Males have better knowledge of heritage resources than females do, and inhabitants with higher income levels are more likely to participate in protection, especially after WSD was listed as a World Heritage Site. Education level was always a key demographic factor before and after WSD's listing on the Heritage List. Household size was a significant factor before WSD was listed on the Heritage List, but it was not significant after, when household income became a significant factor.     

Population,environment, and development

The strategies for reducing population growth include social development and improvement in the educational attainment of women. The decline in Kenya's growth rate was attributed to high female literacy and reduced infant mortality. Another strategy for enhancing fertility decline is to reduce child mortality, particularly from preventable causes such as diarrhea. The entire cost of such a strategy to reduce preventable disease would be about $1.33 per 300 million taxpayers in developed countries. Family planning services must be expanded. Prevention of maternal mortality and AIDS would bring major benefits. Strategies for environmental protection emphasized the already existing plan of action set out in the UNCED document Agenda 21 in Rio de Janeiro. The plan has suffered from inaction. The estimated cost of $625 million was considered to be several times smaller than the costs of inaction. The elimination of subsidies in tropical forests would have an immediate impact. Natural resource accounting at the national level would include the value of natural resources. Pricing would change radically for gasoline if the costs of urban smog, acid rain, low-level ozone pollution, and global warming were taken into account. Strategies for sustainable development pertained to the preceding strategies and others indicated in the Agenda 21 Action Plan. If funding were better targeted to the poorest 20% of global population with high fertility rates, the accomplishments would be heralded. 1.2 million are living in absolute poverty, and aid for nutrition, primary health care, water and sanitation, basic education, and family planning amounts to only 10% of expenditures. An increase to 20% would mean a contribution from Americans of $7.50 per person or 33% of $25 thousand million from all developed countries. Developing countries need to lower their military expenditures, privatize public enterprises, change inappropriate development policies, eliminate corruption, and improve national governance. The debt burden should be reduced.     

Water, environment and development

This paper for the most part constitutes the address which was made to the Consortium for International Development at their recent Presidential Symposium at Colorado State University on 30 July 1992. It raises some of the global issues in water resources development and management which are likely to confront the international community in the 1990s and beyond. The issues pose the challenge to institutions involved in the water resources field in both developed and developing countries.     

Investigation of declared seating preference and measured cognitive performance in a sunlit room

Current daylighting standards are not sufficient to guarantee a high-quality daylighting experience as they fail to take the behavior of building occupants into consideration. The way that a daylit room is appreciated and used has not been fully explored, especially under sunlighting conditions. This research is the first of its kind to assess how the distance between a subject and a sun patch on the floor is related to a broad range of behavioral responses, including conclusive preference and measured cognitive performance. One hundred subjects participated in a controlled experiment in a work setting. Investigations of the declared preferences of seating area and subjects' cognitive performances indicated that people are not always aware of the environmental factors that influence their behavior. Subjects were generally attracted to sunlight and outdoor views, but they did not necessarily perform best in these preferred areas. Privacy and a sense of control were two hidden factors that greatly affected subjects' decisions and performances. Current daylighting literature and design practice do not pay adequate attention to such factors as sense of visual control or privacy in the design of rooms. On the other hand, the perceived problem of visual glare caused by sunlight penetration did not affect performance as much as subjects believed it would. An additional result suggested that individual behaviors were more affected by environmental elements than were group activities.     

Modelling categorical data to identify factors influencing concern for the natural environment in Iran

Loglinear modelling techniques were used to identify the interactions and interrelationships underlying categorical environmental concern data collected from 9062 respondents in Iran. After fitting various loglinear models to the data, the most parsimonious model highlighted that a combination of interacting factors, namely educational attainment, age, gender, and residential location were responsible for influencing personal concern for the environment. Although high educational attainment had a close correspondence with high concern for the environment the loglinear results, when visualized with a geographical information system, demonstrated wide spatial variations in educational attainment and concern for the environment. Nearly two-thirds of the respondents were not highly educated, and were therefore not highly concerned for the environment. The finding that both rural and urban male and female respondents in the 15-24 years age category, with 10-12 years of education, had the strongest interaction with personal concern for the environment could be beneficial for policy planners to utilize education as the primary instrument to enhance environmental governance and prospects for sustainable development.