Sharing waters: Post-Rio international water management

Transcending human-defined political and administrative boundaries, the world's transboundary freshwater resources pose particularly challenging management problems. Water resource users at all scales frequently find themselves in direct competition for this economic and life-sustaining resource, in turn creating tensions, and indeed conflict, over water supply, allocation, and quality. At the international scale, where the potential for conflict is of particular concern, significant efforts are underway to promote greater cooperation in the world's international river basins, with notable achievements in the past decade following the Dublin and Rio conferences. Over the past ten years, the international community has adopted conventions, declarations, and legal statements concerning the management of international waters, while basin communities have established numerous new basin institutions. Despite these developments, significant vulnerabilities remain. Many international basins still lack any type of joint management structure, and certain fundamental management components are noticeably absent from those that do. An understanding of these weaknesses, however, offers an opportunity for both the international and basin communities to better respond to the specific institution-building needs of basin communities and thereby foster broader cooperation over the world's international water resources.     

CONFLICT AND COOPERATION OVER INTERNATIONAL FRESHWATER RESOURCES: INDICATORS OF BASINS AT RISR1

ABSTRACT: In this paper we seek to identify historical indicators of international freshwater conflict and cooperation and to create a framework to identify and evaluate international river basins at potential risk for future conflict. We derived biophysical, socioeco‐nomic, and geopolitical variables at multiple spatial and temporal scales from GIS datasets of international basins and associated countries, and we tested these variables against a database of historical incidents of international water related cooperation and conflict from 1948 to 1999. International relations over freshwater resources were overwhelmingly cooperative and covered a wide range of issues, including water quantity, water quality, joint management, and hydropower. Conflictive relations tended to center on quantity and infrastructure. No single indicator—including climate, water stress, government type, and dependence on water for agriculture or energy—explained conflict/cooperation over water. Even indicators showing a significant correlation with water conflict, such as high population density, low per capita GDP, and overall unfriendly international relations, explained only a small percentage of data variability. The most promising sets of indicators for water conflict were those associated with rapid or extreme physical or institutional change within a basin (e.g., large dams or internationalization of a basin) and the key role of institutional mechanisms, such as freshwater treaties, in mitigating such conflict.     

EMERGING CONCEPTS FOR THE CONDUCT OF STATE WATER RESOURES PLANNING1

ABSTRACT: The development of water resources planning at the state level is discussed. Although there are significant specific differences among state planning programs, some common general principles of state water resources planning are emerging over time. In the interest of reconciling conflict over water allocation states are engaged in policy clarification, mediation of interst group conflict, and provision of baseline information.     

Coltan from Central Africa,international trade and implications for any certification

The exploitation of coltan in Central Africa can be considered a case of conflict minerals due to its nature. Many international organizations and bodies, national governments and private sector organizations seek to address this conflict, in particular via transparency, certification and accountability along the material supply chain. This paper analyses the international trade dimension of coltan and gives evidence on the dimension of illicit trade of coltan. The authors start from the hypothesis that illicit trade of coltan sooner or later will enter the market and will be reflected in the statistics. The paper is structured in the following manner: first, a short section gives a profile of coltan production and markets; second, an overview of the mining situation in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and related actors. The third section addresses mechanisms, actors and measurement issues involved in the international trade of coltan. The final part draws lessons for certification and conflict analysis and offers some guidance for future research.     

Scarcity and conflict,key problems in water management: a Mexican case study

Water scarcity has become a key issue in water management. There are two contrasting positions regarding scarcity as a source of conflict or cooperation. Accordingly, it is worth exploring what exactly are the conditions that make water scarcity a source of conflict or cooperation. The history of water conflicts has shown that people are more likely to kill around a water hole than when conflicts grow into national or international issues. This suggests that there may be an inverse relationship between the level of violence and the scale at which the water conflict takes place. A common problem in environmental management has been the lack of effective mechanisms to handle conflict. In the majority of these cases, the main shortcoming was an inability of the parties to identify their differences. Therefore, this research explores the idea that understanding the causes of conflict from the outset, followed by an evaluation, at the local scale, of the conditions, is a necessary precondition to finding appropriate and sustainable solutions. With this background in mind, the objective of this paper is to employ a conflict assessment process in order to explore to the extent to which a collaborative dialogue among stakeholders can be an appropriate approach to conflict resolution. A case study in Mexico is employed as a testing ground.     

Reducing conflict over the Danube waters: equitable utilization and sustainable development

This paper develops the idea that the principle of equitable utilization must be applied in concert with sustainable water use not only in the resolution of specific disputes but in the cooperative management of water resources in general. It illustrates this point with two different cases involving the use of the Danube River. The first is the conflict over the Gabcikovo Nagymaros Dam, which now rests before the International Court of Justice. The author argues that a narrow legal ruling that fails to take into account broader issues of equitable utilization as they relate to sustainable development will not satisfactorily address the long-term questions at stake between the parties. The second involves the situation in the Danube Delta where the potential for conflict exists, but may be minimized through the convention and institutional framework developed to address the environmental degradation and pollution of the Danube River basin, which is based in part on the principle of equitable utilization and the goal of achieving more sustainable water use. The paper provides a brief overview of the geographical features of the Danube River and international water law. It then explores the principle of equitable utilization and sustainable water use in light of the two cases and discusses the implications for the resolution and management of conflicts involving internationally shared water courses.     

区域水资源最优配置的研究——以汉中盆地为例

本文通过对水资源优化系统的分析,指出了该系统一些易被人们忽视的特征:①水资源优化系统只是整个资源优化大系统的一个子系统,它具有大型性、整体最优性、等级层次性、相对独立性等诸多特征,因此我们必须将其置于资源优化大系统中去考察。②该系统也是一个复杂的动态系统,所以必须应用动态规划法去处理它。③水资源优化系统中的多目标间存在各种冲突,显然协调冲突在水资源优化配置研究中是至关重要的,文中提出三种冲突-协调方法,笔者更推崇的是第三种方法,即“地理‘二难’推理”。     

Challenges to the Future Development of Iran’s Protected Areas System

Since the 1950s, there has been a continuous increase in the number and coverage of protected areas (PAs) in Iran, and in total 253 PAs have been declared that cover 10.12?% of the country's area. This paper reviews literature addressing Iran's PAs, examines what is known about them, highlights the challenges and lessons learned, and identifies areas where more research is needed. The PA system in Iran is criticized because of (1) shortages of manpower, equipment, and financial resources; (2) de jure PAs that are often implemented as de facto reserves; (3) lack of national biodiversity indicators and objective monitoring processes; and (4) limited public participation and conflict between people over PAs. To improve, Iran's PAs system needs to be realistically supported by policies and planning instruments. In addition, the implementation of active management to restore habitat, increase education and awareness, shift practices towards the guidelines of international organizations, build capacity, and improve management and co-management by local communities needs to occur.     

Devils lake emergency outlet diversion conflict

The Devils Lake Emergency Outlet Diversion conflict is systematically studied from a strategic viewpoint using the Graph Model for Conflict Resolution in order to obtain insights about the resolution of this nagging international dispute. By modelling the conflict for the situation existing as of July 2005, just before the project began operation, the dispute is put into proper perspective and, subsequently, a stability analysis is carried out to obtain potential resolutions or equilibria. The results of a sensitivity analysis accurately predict the deal which actually took place when Canada and the American state of North Dakota reached a negotiated settlement. Finally, suggestions are put forward for improving the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 between Canada and the United States.     

Could Peace be Worse than War for Colombia's Forests?

The forests of Colombia are influenced by the actions of armed groups and, in many cases, their settlers are economically dependent on illicit crops. Up to the present armed conflict has simultaneously discouraged organized exploitation in some frontier areas, and encouraged unsustainable use of natural resources therein. The Colombian government seeks to end the conflict by pursuing peace negotiations, and to eradicate illicit crops. How will these policies affect the forests? The environmental consequences of these policies are not only dependent on the unlikely economic success of alternative development, but on making informed decisions about infrastructure development in affected areas.     

Federalism and environmental politics: An Australian overview

Summary This overview paper examines past Australian conservation controversies and experiences to identify prospective means of ameliorating environmental conflict in the future. Since all community disputes should be resolved by means of political and administrative actions, emphasis is placed on federalism and intergovernmental relations, and measures are suggested which might improve environmental policy and practices in the future.Dr Bruce W. Davis is currently Head of the Department of Political Science, Dean of the Faculty of Arts, and member of the Council of the University of Tasmania. He possesses qualifications and professional experience in engineering, economics and administration. He has numerous publications within the fields of public sector planning and natural resources management, and acts in an advisory and consulting capacity to State and Federal agencies involved in national parks administration, heritage conservation and land-use planning.In addition to University commitments, Dr Davis holds the following appointments: Commissioner, Australian Heritage Commission; Member, Australian National Commission for UNESCO, Man and Biosphere Program; Trustee, World Wildlife Fund Australia; Councillor, Australian Conservation Foundation; and Consultant to IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.     

PRINCIPLES FOR INTERNATIONAL GROUND-WATER LAW (I)

International ground-water resources have not received their full share of legal investigation. This paper outlines some principles applicable to the development of international co-operation concerning this important resource, bearing in mind that ground and surface waters are the same resource. In the absence of positive international law covering ground-water resources, national laws are investigated to examine their suitability for adaptation to the international level. In a second paper, to be published in the next issue of the Forum , the interjurisdictional experience among federated states and among independent states will be reviewed.     

Conflict on the Coast: Using Geographic Information Systems to Map Potential Environmental Disputes in Matagorda Bay,Texas

The sustainable management of coastal natural resources inevitably involves identifying stakeholder conflicts and developing planning processes that prevent these conflicts from becoming intractable disputes. This study links environmental conflict to specific areas within a large ecological system. Specifically, we use Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map potentially competing stakeholder values associated with establishing protected areas in Matagorda Bay, Texas. By overlaying multiple values associated with a range of stakeholders across space, we are able to identify hotspots of potential conflict as well as areas of opportunity for maximizing joint gains. Mapping stakeholder conflict is an approach to proactively locate potential controversy in response to a specific environmental management proposal and guide decision makers in crafting planning processes that mitigate the possibility of intractable disputes and facilitate the implementation of sustainable coastal policies. Results indicate that under different management scenarios, protected area proposals will generate more conflict in specific areas. Most notably, regulated uses would produce the greatest degree of conflict on or near shore, particularly at the mouth of the Colorado River. Additionally, of all the management scenarios evaluated, the prohibition of coastal structural development would generate the overall highest level of conflict within the Bay. Based on the results, we discuss the policy implications for environmental managers and provide guidance for future research on location-based conflict management within the coastal margin.     

STRATEGY FOR DYNAMIC REGIONAL WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION1

ABSTRACT Water resources planning has emphasized the consideration of alternatives in the formulation of goals and objectives. With greater availability of data and projection models, optimization of plans is now much nearer to accomplishment. In contrast to these favorable aspects of planning, increased complexity of plans and large number of alternatives serving differing sets of goals have extended the time horizons from initial plan formulation to eventual implementation. In this paper a man-machine strategy is proposed to reduce the time required for decision making and conflict resolution. A panel of representatives of the decision makers, influentials and publics involved are selected and brought through a series of dynamic planning steps that simulate real time decision making. Computer interaction graphics is used to visualize the decision making process and to illustrate where and why conflict arises. A mechanism for resolution of conflict and retention of consistency in policy formulation using a cognograph is described.     

A RECOMMENDED BASIC FORMAT FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNATIONAL DATA ON CRUDE OIL AND NATURAL GAS RESERVES AND RESOURCES

Effective assessment of nonrenewable resources depends on both the availability and the interpretation of basic data. The quality of these data directly affects resource policy decisions based on them. It is vital to bring information on reserves and resources into sharper focus, by clearer definition of what has been measured, by orderly classification and by identification of the results of assessment in a way that stimulates their proper understanding and application. As part of the overall programme of the United Nations Centre for Natural Resources, Energy and Transport in the field of natural resources, an Expert Group was convened in New York from 28 March to 4 April to discuss a series of such basic questions concerning the international classification and measurement of crude oil and natural gas resources. Key conceptual principles and definitions were agreed as a basic framework within which governments could work towards an internally consistent and comprehensive international exchange of information. The Group also examined problems of measurement and the manner in which existing national data would be incorporated into an international classification. The report of the Group is reproduced in full below.     

Japan's develop-for-import policy

Much of the world's remaining mineral resources lie within the underdeveloped nations of the Third World. The current crisis of confidence characterized in international investment and trade in extractive resources has become detrimental to both the resource-rich developing countries and the resource-hungry industrialized countries. Japan is one nation that has developed a strategy to foster mutual trust and to restore confidence in the international extractive industries. This paper examines Japan's develop-for-import policy, ‘kaihatsu yunso’, and its design, implementation and effects on securing foreign resources supplies.     

Long term contracts and market stability: The case of iron ore

The paper gives the background to the international iron ore trade and discusses the organization of markets and causes of instability. The role of the long term contract is then examined and possible relationships between prices and quantity instability and the pattern of use of long term contracts is considered. It is concluded that although such contracts tend to promote market stability this may conflict with the need for market readjustment.     

Agroecology in the tropics: Achieving a balance between land use and preservation

Agroecology is the application of ecological concepts and principles to the design and management of sustainable agricultural systems. An agroecological approach to agriculture has special importance in the humid tropics where agricultural development and the preservation of tropical forests are most often in direct conflict. It is proposed that a more sustainable approach to development is needed, where agroecosystems depend on low external inputs, function more on the use of locally available and renewable resources, have benign impacts on the environment, and are based on the knowledge and culture of the local inhabitants. Examples of traditional agroecosystem management in Mesoamerica that can provide this basis are presented. The preservation of both biological and cultural diversity are integral to the long-term sustainable management of natural resources in the tropics.     

The International Law Commission and Legal Principles Related to the Non-navigational Uses of the Waters of International Rivers

There are serious problems related to the use and conservation of international rivers. Riparian nations tend to use their waters and to transfer negative impacts, such as pollution, to other countries. This paper examines the work of the International Law Commission as it seeks to elaborate a framework convention for the use and conservation of shared watercourses. Although this task is still in progress, basic substantive principles such as 'equitable apportionment' and 'prohibition against appreciable harm' seem to be widely agreed upon. The immediate need is the development of and the agreement on, procedural systems for conflict resolution.     

New view of environmental health: Toward an environmental research policy for international strategies

We are witnessing a growing concern with the global dimension of many environmental issues, reflected in the increase in the number and significance of international environmental organizations. Yet there is no internationally applicable strategy for environmental research which is management oriented. A new type of research policy, which integrates ideas derived from environmental and human ecology, is required in order to deal with cultural and ecological diversity and their interactions as reflected in the ecology of landscapes. The newly defined concept of environmental health is proposed to fill this gap. This concept integrates the latest developments in landscape evolutionary ecology and environmental health, bringing out a conflict between making the environment conducive to human health and increasing the available options for supporting the essential biological and ecological processes of the environment. Lessons derived from the evolution of human environments are used in order to illustrate how health may become un umbrella for developing an environmental research policy, which could also serve as a catalyst for international environmental projects.