大庆油田湖泊湿地景观生态设计探讨

采用景观生态设计的方法,将大庆油田职工生活居住区内湖泊湿地的湖盆、湖岸、湿地、水体及植物、地貌、土壤等自然因素作为一个整体,对湖底、湖岸、浅水区、湖滨带等地进行了景观生态设计。该设计方案体现了地方性特征,保护与节约了自然资源,显露了自然特色,达到了对环境影响最小、资本投入少、生态效益最大的设计目的。     

Landscape-Based Assessment of Human Disturbance for Michigan Lakes

Assessment of lake impairment status and identification of threats’ type and source is essential for protection of intact, enhancement of modified, and restoration of impaired lakes. For regions in which large numbers of lakes occur, such assessment has usually been done for only small fractions of lakes due to resource and time limitation. This study describes a process for assessing lake impairment status and identifying which human disturbances have the greatest impact on each lake for all lakes that are 2 ha or larger in the state of Michigan using readily available, georeferenced natural and human disturbance databases. In-lake indicators of impairment are available for only a small subset of lakes in Michigan. Using statistical relationships between the in-lake indicators and landscape natural and human-induced measures from the subset lakes, we assessed the likely human impairment condition of lakes for which in-lake indicator data were unavailable using landscape natural and human disturbance measures. Approximately 92% of lakes in Michigan were identified as being least to marginally impacted and about 8% were moderately to heavily impacted by landscape human disturbances. Among lakes that were heavily impacted, more inline lakes (92%) were impacted by human disturbances than disconnected (6%) or headwater lakes (2%). More small lakes were impacted than medium to large lakes. For inline lakes, 90% of the heavily impacted lakes were less than 40 ha, 10% were between 40 and 405 ha, and 1% was greater than 405 ha. For disconnected and headwater lakes, all of the heavily impacted lakes were less than 40 ha. Among the anthropogenic disturbances that contributed the most to lake disturbance index scores, nutrient yields and farm animal density affected the highest number of lakes, agricultural land use affected a moderate number of lakes, and point-source pollution and road measures affected least number of lakes. Our process for assessing lake condition represents a significant advantage over other routinely used methods. It permits the evaluation of lake condition across large regions and yields an overall disturbance index that is a physicochemical and biological indicator weighted sum of multiple disturbance factors. The robustness of our approach can be improved with increased availability of high-resolution disturbance datasets.     

Threshold-Based Resource Management: A Framework for Comprehensive Ecosystem Management

The problems posed by adaptive management for improved ecosystem health are reviewed. Other kinds of science-informed ecosystem management are needed for those regions of conflict between rapid human population growth, increased resource extraction, and the rising demand for better environmental amenities, where large-scale experiments are not feasible. One new framework is threshold-based resource management. Threshold-based resource management guides management choices among four major science and engineering approaches to achieve healthier ecosystems: self-sustaining ecosystem management, adaptive management, case-by-case resource management, and high-reliability management. As resource conflicts increase over a landscape (i.e., as the ecosystems in the landscape move through different thresholds), management options change for the environmental decision-maker in terms of what can and cannot be attained by way of ecosystem health. The major policy and management implication of the framework is that the exclusive use or recommendation of any one management regime, be it self-sustaining, adaptive, case-by-case, or high-reliability management, across all categories of ecosystems within a heterogeneous landscape that is variably populated and extractively used is not only inappropriate, it is fatal to the goals of improved ecosystem health. The article concludes with detailed proposals for environmental decision-makers to undertake “bandwidth management” in ways that blend the best of adaptive management and high-reliability management for improved ecosystem health while at the same time maintaining highly reliable flows of ecosystem services, such as water.     

Defining Goals and Criteria for Ecosystem-Based Management

/ Identifying goals or targets for landscape and ecosystem management is now a widely recognized need that has received little systematic attention. At a micro-level most planners and managers of both ecosystems and economies continue to pursue traditional goals and targets that miss many desirable characteristics of ecosystem-based management goals. Desirable characteristics of ecosystem and landscape management goals and targets include: addressing complexity, transdisciplinarity, and the dynamic nature of natural systems; reflecting the wide range of interests and goals that exist; recognizing goals and values and limits; involving people and being explainable and implementable in a consistent way to different people and groups; and evolving adaptively as conditions and knowledge change. Substantive and procedural goals can be distinguished; the latter supporting the former. Substantive goals can be grouped according to their relationship to system structure, organization, and process/dynamics, and their disciplinary or subsystemic breadth. These discussions are illustrated by a review of the goals of biodiversity, sustainability, ecological health, and integrity. An example of a hierarchical framework of procedural goals and objectives that supports achievement of substantive goals is also provided. The conclusion is that a parallel, linked system of substantive and procedural goals at different levels of complexity and disciplinarity is needed to facilitate ecosystem-based management.KEY WORDS: Ecosystem management; Goals and objectives; Assessment criteria     

Economic Valuation of the Non-use Attributes of a Wetland: A Case-study for Lake Kerkini

Wetlands are an environmental feature which deliver a variety of market and non-market goods and services. Established environmental economic theory separates the value of these goods and services into direct-use values, indirect-use values and non-use values. Given appreciation of all three, measurements can be derived to demonstrate the amount of public money that it may be feasible to allocate to the sustainable management of wetlands. However, in many cases, non-use values are ignored and the total economic value of wetlands can be severely undervalued. As a result, inadequate resources are fed into their management and environmental degradation occurs due to inappropriate commercial exploitation of the natural resource. Lake Kerkini, in northern Greece, is one such wetland area threatened by undervaluation and overexploitation for commercial purposes, and a resource whose management would benefit from the realization of non-use values. This study therefore uses the contingent valuation method to place a value on the non-use attributes of Lake Kerkini. It also examines the relationship between the revealed non-use values and the distance people live from the lake, highlights the personal characteristics which appear important in determining total willingness to pay and breaks total non-use value down into its component parts to suggest the most important non-use elements. The paper concludes that sustainable management of the lake is justified and provides evidence that substantial public monies are potentially available to protect and enhance the environmental value of the resource.     

Mesoscale survey of western and northwestern Irish lakes – Spatial and aestival patterns in trophic status and phytoplankton community structure

Inland water bodies are considered as integrated parts of the landscape and the monitoring of water quality and aquatic resources need to be addressed on a regional basis for optimal assessment and management. In this study, a simple stratified sampling scheme was applied to a mesoscale survey of western and northwestern Irish lakes, which was carried out to identify, based on the distribution patterns of phytoplankton biomass, potential associations between lake trophic state and land cover attributes. Phytoplankton community analysis was also performed to determine whether taxa associations reflected meteorology-linked aestival succession or specific spatial distributions. The assessment was based on the typology of hydrogeomorphological and land cover attributes of river catchments through ArcGIS analysis. Sampling was carried out in 50 lakes and during a 15-week period in summer 2009. Results showed a general longitudinal gradient in the trophic status of the lakes sampled, with a greater frequency of mesotrophic lakes in the eastern part of the study area where land cover is dominated by agricultural surfaces. Significant relationships (p < 0.010) were found between chlorophyll-a concentration and the proportion of river catchment surface covered by agriculture land and wetlands, findings which might be considered further as proxies for developing an eutrophication risk index. Multivariate analysis of phytoplankton community data clustered the sampled lakes into three assemblages, with ordination along axis 1 being significantly correlated to time and temperature (p < 0.006). There was greater frequency of occurrence of diatoms in lakes from cluster III (Kruskal–Wallis, p < 0.05, H = 6.34, df = 2, n = 49), concomitant to lower chlorophyll-a concentrations, lake surface temperatures and Secchi depths, reflecting meteorological conditions dominated by precipitations. Those results support the potential of mesoscale surveys to assess water quality variables and detect environmental patterns at regional scales.     

Lake rehabilitation: A status report

The widespread recognition of lake degradation as a major environmental concern has led to accelerated efforts to better protect and manage lake resources. Where it is too late for avoidance strategies, lake rehabilitation is receiving increasing attention as a natural resources management option. In recent years, a significant number of lake rehabilitation experiences has been documented throughout the world, and many nations and states have embarked upon major lake rehabilitation programsLake rehabilitation is not a ready-to-go technology at this time and still must be regarded as partly experimental. Nevertheless, there have been a number of notably successful lake rehabilitation experiences. Reducing or halting the influx of undesirable materials is the sine qua non for lake rehabilitation. In most successful experiences to date, this has been accomplished by diversion and/or wastewater treatment. A number of in-lake strategies have also been employed to rehabilitate degraded lakes, often as part of an overall restoration plan. Techniques that appear to be most useful include dredging and nutrient inactivation. Several examples of successful applications are noted.Although efforts to rehabilitate lakes have produced a mixed record, there are encouraging results that suggest the viability of this approach. Lake rehabilitation, however, is no substitute for environmental management strategies that provide for protection of lake ecosystems in the first place.     

Indigenous Studies Speaks to Environmental Management

This article describes the increasing connections between the fields of Indigenous studies and environmental management and examines some of the ways that an Indigenous studies perspective can guide thinking about environmental management. Indigenous groups have been involved in the management of environmental and natural resources on their lands since time immemorial. Indigenous groups have also become increasingly involved in Western practices of environmental management with the advent of co-management institutions, subsistence boards, traditional ecological knowledge forums, and environmental issues affecting Indigenous resources. Thus, it is an important time for scholarship that explores how Indigenous groups are both shaping and being affected by processes of environmental management. This article summarizes key findings and themes from eight papers situated at the intersection of these two fields of study and identify means by which environmental managers can better accommodate Indigenous rights and perspectives. It is the authors’ hope that increased dialog between Indigenous studies and environmental management can contribute to the building of sustainable and socially just environmental management practices.     

Sustaining Visitor Use in Protected Areas: Future Opportunities in Recreation Ecology Research Based on the USA Experience

Recreation ecology, the study of environmental consequences of outdoor recreation activities and their effective management, is a relatively new field of scientific study having emerged over the last 50 years. During this time, numerous studies have improved our understanding of how use-related, environmental and managerial factors affect ecological conditions and processes. Most studies have focused on vegetation and soil responses to recreation-related trampling on trails and recreation sites using indicators such as percent vegetation cover and exposed mineral soil. This applied approach has and will continue to yield important information for land managers. However, for the field to advance, more attention needs to be given to other ecosystem attributes and to the larger aspects of environmental conservation occurring at landscape scales. This article is an effort at initiating a dialog on needed advances in the field. We begin by reviewing broadly generalizable knowledge of recreation ecology, to separate what is known from research gaps. Then, based on the authors’ perspective of research in the USA and North America, several research directions are suggested as essential for continued progress in this field including theoretical development, broadening scale, integration with other disciplines, and examination of synergistic effects.     

Detection and decision-making in environmental effects monitoring

The majority of environmental effects monitoring (EEM) frameworks that have been proposed compare selected indicator variables as a means of assessing whether significant changes in stressed ecosystems have occurred. Most are deterministic in nature and do not appropriately account for the natural variability and dynamics within the systems being comapred. This suggests that the comparative procedures should be statistically based and immediately raises the issue of whether the selected comparative procedures are to be used as decision-making tools or conclusive procedures. Conclusive procedures require a significant body of evidence before rejecting the postulated null hypothesis. The costs and time involved in environmental data collection accordingly bias action toward the maintenance of a status quo approach to environmental management. if, however, EEM is treated as a decision-making procedure, risk functions that include consideration of type I and II statistical error may be developed and combined with costs to select a minimum expected loss strategy for environemental management. Examples of the interpretative difficulties and conclusion reversal phenomena caused when EEM is used as a conclusive procedure are presented. In addition, risk functions appropriate for environmental management within an EEM context are constructed and applied. Only when such tools are fully developed and applied can EEM expect to have significant impacts on minimizing environmental degradation.     

Reflections in a Stock Pond: Are Anthropogenically Derived Freshwater Ecosystems Natural, Artificial, or Something Else?

“A skyscraper is as natural as a bird’s nest” –Alan Watts For millennia, people have altered freshwater ecosystems directly through water development and indirectly by global change and surrounding land-use activities. In these altered ecosystems, human impacts can be subtle and are sometimes overlooked by the people who manage them. This article provides two case studies near Boulder, Colorado that demonstrate how perceptions regarding these ecosystems affect their management. These examples are typical of lakes and streams along the Front Range of Colorado that are simultaneously natural and social in origin. Although natural, many of the region’s freshwater ecosystems are affected by ongoing ecologic, hydrologic, chemical, and geomorphic modifications produced by human activity. People and nature are both active participants in the production of these freshwater ecosystems. The concept of “hybridity,” borrowed from geographers and social scientists, is useful for describing landscapes of natural and social origin. Hybrid freshwater ecosystems are features of the humanized landscape and are derived from deliberate cultural activities, nonhuman physical and biological processes, and incidental anthropogenic disturbance. Our perceptions of “natural” freshwater ecosystems and what definitions we use to describe them influences our view of hybrid systems and, in turn, affects management decisions regarding them. This work stresses the importance of understanding the underlying societal forces and cultural values responsible for the creation of hybrid freshwater ecosystems as a central step in their conservation and management.     

Exploring changes in Ecuadorian land use for food production and their effects on natural resources

A model is used for the dynamic and spatially explicit exploration of near future agricultural land-use changes. In a case study for Ecuador, different plausible scenarios are formulated, taking into account possible developments in national food demand until the year 2010. The protection of nature parks and restrictions due to land degradation are evaluated with respect to their possible spatial impacts on the land-use change dynamics within the country. Under the assumptions of the demand scenarios, agricultural land-use expands significantly, resulting in more use of land in existing agricultural areas and frontier-type expansion into relatively undisturbed natural areas. The patterns of change depend on the increase in demand, competition between land-use types, changes in driving factors of land use, and the area and characteristics of land that is excluded from agricultural use. The modelled land-use dynamics are related to their possible impacts on the natural resource base, specifically soil fertility. The results indicate potential negative effects of land-use changes on the soil nutrient balance and biodiversity. It is argued that spatial and temporal quantification of land-use dynamics at the landscape level can support research and policies aimed at understanding the driving factors of land-use change and the behaviour of complex agro-ecosystems under changing conditions at different scales. In this way, issues dealing with sustainable food production and the management of the natural resource base can be addressed in a more integrated and quantitative manner.     

Sediment-based investigation of naturally or historically eutrophic lakes -- implications for lake management

Implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive will call for new lake monitoring and management strategies. Therefore, different methods need to be tested in order to achieve reliable assessment of lake background conditions and water quality. Sediment-based techniques provide one such tool for lake management. In this work, 10 lakes, presumed to be naturally eutrophic, were investigated with a paleolimnological short core study. The aim of the study was to examine the composition of the diatom assemblages in their natural state, estimate their change over time and assess the background nutrient levels. One sediment profile from each lake was divided into six sub-samples that were analyzed for diatoms (60 samples). Diatom-based inference models were applied to reconstruct the past total phosphorus concentration and assess the eutrophication. The results indicated that all the lakes studied had already been nutrient-rich before the impact of modern agriculture. However, diatom assemblages have changed remarkably over time and total phosphorus concentrations have generally increased, so at present only two of the study lakes are close to their natural status. This suggests that naturally eutrophic lakes will probably require management actions to fulfill the new directive requirements in the future.     

Input- and output-oriented approaches to implementing ecosystem management

Input- and output-oriented approaches to landscape management have distinct roles for resource protection, environmental restoration, and sustainable land management. Implementing recent proposals for ecosystem management in the western United States involves a synthesis of input and output management. Within the broader context of ecosystem management, input management focuses on tailoring land use to the landscape, whereas output management employs assessments of resource condition to trigger modified management activity once resources are degraded to specified threshold conditions. Current approaches to landscape-scale management, however, tend to rely primarily on output-oriented strategies that are most effective for monitoring environmental conditions. Current uses of input management focus on environmental impact assessments, which generally are site- or project-specific analyses. The compeexity and dynamic nature of ecosystems, and the range of scales over which ecological processes operate, imply that development and incorporation of input-oriented approaches into landscape-scale management is necessary to implement ecosystem management as a strategy for sustainable land use.     

Public support for river restoration. A mixed-method study into local residents' support for and framing of river management and ecological restoration in the Dutch floodplains

In many European countries, accommodating water has become the dominant paradigm in river management. In the Netherlands, extensive river restoration projects are being implemented, many of which draw serious opposition from the public. To investigate the causes of such opposition, a comprehensive study of public attitudes towards river restoration was conducted in three floodplains, both before and after river restoration. The study combined quantitative questionnaires (N = 562) with open interviews (N = 29). This paper describes how local residents perceive the effects of river restoration on landscape quality and how residents and protest groups use landscape quality in combination with other arguments to strategically frame river management policies. Results show that measurement of the perceived outcomes of nature restoration needs to be complemented by a more dynamic type of research, focusing on the social processes of the framing of restoration plans. Theoretically, the paper aims to contribute to the development of a rigorous research strategy to study framing processes in environmental management, using a mixed-methods approach.     

Changes in Public Commons as a Consequence of Urbanization: The Agara Lake in Bangalore,India

The city of Bangalore in southern India is rapidly expanding, resulting in major transformations in land use, wetland management, and the distribution of green spaces. This paper examines how transformations in land use and governance consequent to urbanization can change people’s perceptions of and interactions with an urban ecological commons, using the case study of the Agara lake in the south Indian city of Bangalore. In less than four decades, the landscape surrounding the lake has altered from a fundamentally agricultural area, dependent on the lake for irrigation and drinking water, to a densely urbanized area where the lake is used predominantly for recreation. A change in governance from community management to state management has sidelined the fishers, fodder collectors and agricultural users who traditionally maintained this lake. The governmental agencies that are supposed to maintain the lake are unable to do so due to a complex governance structure, with overlapping jurisdictions, compounded by an ongoing litigation. Over the past decades, the lake has largely transitioned into an urban green space primarily used for recreation and nature watching. This case study provides us with a broader understanding of how changes in governance consequent to urbanization and city expansion can impact interactions between people and ecological commons in a rapidly growing Indian city.     

A methodology for creating greenways through multidisciplinary sustainable landscape planning

This research proposes a methodology for defining greenways via sustainable planning. This approach includes the analysis and discussion of culture and natural processes that occur in the landscape. The proposed methodology is structured in three phases: eco-cultural analysis; synthesis and diagnosis; and proposal.An interdisciplinary approach provides an assessment of the relationships between landscape structure and landscape dynamics, which are essential to any landscape management or land use. The landscape eco-cultural analysis provides a biophysical, dynamic (geomorphologic rate), vegetation (habitats from directive 92/43/EEC) and cultural characterisation. The knowledge obtained by this analysis then supports the definition of priority actions to stabilise the landscape and the management measures for the habitats. After the analysis and diagnosis phases, a proposal for the development of sustainable greenways can be achieved.This methodology was applied to a study area of the Azambuja Municipality in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (Portugal). The application of the proposed methodology to the study area shows that landscape stability is crucial for greenway users in order to appreciate the landscape and its natural and cultural elements in a sustainable and healthy way, both by cycling or by foot. A balanced landscape will increase the value of greenways and in return, they can develop socio-economic activities with benefits for rural communities.     

Territorial Recognition and Control of Changes in Dynamic Rural Areas: Analysis of the Naturbanization Process in Andalusia,Spain

This paper analyses new dynamics in rural areas of Andalusia belonging to protected environments. These dynamics relate to demographic developments that have taken place over the past 20 years, and their repercussions on changes in the use of land and regional planning in a wider context. The author calls this process 'naturbanization', building on the work of Berry and Champion on the concept of counterurbanization. Whilst most of the work on demographic movements and restructuring in rural areas is based on the trends set by city dwellers, this work aims to show the importance of environmental conditions on human behaviour and how this can have medium and long-term repercussions on the population dynamics of rural areas in Andalusia. The main results of this study show clear evidence of a nature urbanization process, as measured by a relative population development, in rural areas where protected natural areas are present. However, there are also clear differences in the population growth rates that support the presence of a naturbanization process between natural parks. In the protected natural areas situated in inland locations, population growth rates have generally been lagging behind while the protected areas situated nearer to the coast have proved to be more attractive to migration and have experienced a positive population development in the 1981‐2001 period. Apparently, the presence of protected nature is not the only factor determining the attractiveness of a rural area as a place to live. The naturbanization in rural areas can have negative implications for the ecological, landscape and social values of rural areas and therefore needs careful policy attention.     

Towards sustainability management systems in three Swedish local authorities

This paper explores the development towards sustainability management systems (SMSs) in three Swedish local authorities. Many local authorities have extensive experience in using standardised Environmental Management Systems (EMSs). Recently EMSs have extended their reach by widening the scope of the systems including other dimensions of sustainable development. Case studies have been performed in three of the most EMS-experienced local authorities in Sweden. These authorities have extended their EMSs into a sustainability management approach in different ways. This paper discusses the development, possible contributions, and constraints with this development. Expanding EMSs into SMSs can be seen as a learning process in which a larger systems perspective leads to increased awareness that the management system becomes limited by only managing environmental issues. Expanding the EMSs into SMSs may lead to a more complete view of the organisation's total impact on nature and society, and issues that need to be managed.