Influence of tobacco smoke on carcinogenic PAH composition in indoor PM10 and PM2.5

Because of the mutagenic and/or carcinogenic properties, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH), have a direct impact on human population. Consequently, there is a widespread interest in analysing and evaluating the exposure to PAH in different indoor environments, influenced by different emission sources. The information on indoor PAH is still limited, mainly in terms of PAH distribution in indoor particles of different sizes; thus, this study evaluated the influence of tobacco smoke on PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 characteristics, namely on their PAH compositions, with further aim to understand the negative impact of tobacco smoke on human health. Samples were collected at one site influenced by tobacco smoke and at one reference (non-smoking) site using low-volume samplers; the analyses of 17 PAH were performed by Microwave Assisted Extraction combined with Liquid Chromatography (MAE–LC). At the site influenced by tobacco smoke PM concentrations were higher 650% for PM₁₀, and 720% for PM_2.5. When influenced by smoking, 4 ring PAH (fluoranthene, pyrene, and chrysene) were the most abundant PAH, with concentrations 4600–21 000% and 5100–20 800% higher than at the reference site for PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, respectively, accounting for 49% of total PAH (Σ_PAH). Higher molecular weight PAH (5–6 rings) reached concentrations 300–1300% and 140–1700% higher for PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, respectively, at the site influenced by tobacco smoke. Considering 9 carcinogenic PAH this increase was 780% and 760% in PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, respectively, indicating the strong potential risk for human health. As different composition profiles of PAH in indoor PM were obtained for reference and smoking sites, those 9 carcinogens represented at the reference site 84% and 86% of Σ_PAH in PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, respectively, and at the smoking site 56% and 55% of Σ_PAH in PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, respectively. All PAH (including the carcinogenic ones) were mainly present in fine particles, which corresponds to a strong risk for cardiopulmonary disease and lung cancer; thus, these conclusions are relevant for the development of strategies to protect public health.     

Measurements and modelling of PM2.5 concentrations near a major road in Kuopio,Finland

A particle measurement campaign was conducted in a suburban environment near a major road in Kuopio, Central Finland from 3 August to 9 September 1999. The mass concentrations of fine particles (PM_2.5) were measured simultaneously at distances of 12, 25, 52 and 87 m from the centre of a major road at a height of 1.8 m, using identical samplers. The concentration measurements were conducted during 16 daytime hours (from 6.00 a.m. to 10.00 p.m.) for 27 days. Traffic flows and relevant meteorological parameters were measured on-site; meteorological measurements from a nearby synoptic weather station were also utilised. We also suggest a preliminary model for predicting the concentrations of PM_2.5 and apply this model in order to analyse the measured data. The regionally and long-range transported contribution was evaluated on the basis of a semi-empirical mathematical model utilising as input values the daily sulphate, nitrate and ammonium measurements at the EMEP stations (Co-operative programme for monitoring and evaluation of the long-range transmission of air pollutants in Europe). The influence of primary vehicular emissions from the nearest roads was evaluated using a roadside emission and dispersion model, CAR-FMI, in combination with a meteorological pre-processing model, MPP-FMI. The contribution of non-exhaust particulate matter emissions (including resuspension of particulate matter from road surfaces) was estimated simply to be directly proportional to the concentrations originating from primary vehicular emissions. Comparison of the predicted results and measurements yields information on the relative importance of various source categories of the measured concentrations of PM_2.5. The regionally and long-range transported contribution, the primary and non-exhaust vehicular emissions, and other sources were estimated to contribute on average 41±6%, 33±6% and 26±7% of the observed PM_2.5 concentrations, respectively. The model presented could also be applied in other European cities for analysing the source contributions to measured fine particulate matter concentrations.     

Measurements of PM10 and PM2.5 in urban area of Nanjing,China and the assessment of pulmonary deposition of particle mass

Measurement of PM10 and PM2.5 was carried out at six sites of Nanjing, China in the period of February-May 2001. The pH and conductivity of water-soluble matter of PM10 and PM2.5 were determined, and the samples were analyzed for total carbon (TC), organic carbon (OC) and inorganic carbon (IC) of the water-soluble fraction. The distribution of aerosol mass concentration in size was also measured at one site SB by a nine-stage impactor followed to assess the pulmonary deposition of particles in different tracts of the human respiratory system. Compared with National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) of the USA, the level of PM10 and PM2.5 in Nanjing was much higher. Especially for site SY, the average particle mass concentrations (774.5 micrograms/m3 for PM10 and 481.4 micrograms/m3 for PM2.5) were more than five times the NAAQS standard. At site SB aerosol mass distribution in size had shown the similar characteristics with accumulation (Dp < 1 micron) and coarse (Dp > 1 micron) modes. More than 70% of total suspended particles is of a size that they are deposited in the respiratory tract below trachea, whereas about 22% of the mass is respirable and will reach the alveoli. Water-soluble fractions of PM10 and PM2.5 in Nanjing are acidic, and the pH of PM2.5 is lower than that of PM10. OC makes up the majority of TC and accounts for 3-14% of mass concentration of PM10 and/or PM2.5, while IC only accounts for 0.1-0.5% of PM10 and/or PM2.5 mass.     

Development and evaluation of a continuous coarse (PM10-PM2.5) particle monitor

In this paper, we describe the development and laboratory and field evaluation of a continuous coarse (2.5-10 microm) particle mass (PM) monitor that can provide reliable measurements of the coarse mass (CM) concentrations in time intervals as short as 5-10 min. The operating principle of the monitor is based on enriching CM concentrations by a factor of approximately 25 by means of a 2.5-microm cut point round nozzle virtual impactor while maintaining fine mass (FM)--that is, the mass of PM2.5 at ambient concentrations. The aerosol mixture is subsequently drawn through a standard tapered element oscillating microbalance (TEOM), the response of which is dominated by the contributions of the CM, due to concentration enrichment. Findings from the field study ascertain that a TEOM coupled with a PM10 inlet followed by a 2.5-microm cut point round nozzle virtual impactor can be used successfully for continuous CM concentration measurements. The average concentration-enriched CM concentrations measured by the TEOM were 26-27 times higher than those measured by the time-integrated PM10 samplers [the micro-orifice uniform deposit impactor (MOUDI) and the Partisol] and were highly correlated. CM concentrations measured by the concentration-enriched TEOM were independent of the ambient FM-to-CM concentration ratio, due to the decrease in ambient coarse particle mass median diameter with an increasing FM-to-CM concentration ratio. Finally, our results illustrate one of the main problems associated with the use of real impactors to sample particles at relative humidity (RH) values less than 40%. While PM10 concentrations obtained by means of the MOUDI and Partisol were in excellent agreement, CM concentrations measured by the MOUDI were low by 20%, and FM concentrations were high by a factor of 5, together suggesting particle bounce at low RH.     

Soil water and particle size distribution influence laboratory-generated PM10

Management of soils to reduce the amount of PM₁₀ emitted during agricultural tillage operations is important for attainment of air quality standards in California's San Joaquin Valley (SJV). The purpose of this study was to improve and expand upon earlier work of predicting tillage-generated dust emissions based on soil properties. We focus on gravimetric soil water content (GWC) and soil texture. A mechanical laboratory dust generator was used to test 23 soils collected for this study. Averaged results showed PM₁₀ concentrations (mg m^?3) increased logarithmically as GWC decreased below soil water potentials of ?1500 kPa. Soils with clay contents less than about 10% by weight began to emit PM₁₀ at GWCs 1.5–4 times their GWC at ?1500 kPa. Soils with clay contents greater than about 10% began to emit PM₁₀ at GWC values closer to ?1500 kPa. We found no correlation between maximum PM₁₀ concentrations, measured at low GWC values, and the %sand, %silt, or %clay in a soil. However, there was a significant correlation between the %silt to %clay ratio and PM₁₀ concentrations. This not only suggests the dependence of dust emission magnitudes on the supply of particles of PM₁₀ size, but also the importance of clay in stabilizing aggregates and maintaining higher amounts of capillary water at lower water potentials. Based on modeled results of pooled data, PM₁₀ concentrations increased linearly (slope = 564) for every unit increase in the %silt to %clay ratio. However, when soils were separated into groups based on clay content, the slopes for PM₁₀ concentrations vs. %silt to %clay ratio were texture dependent. The slope for soils with <10% clay (slope = 727) was 3.3 times greater than for soils with >20% clay (slope = 221). Improved PM₁₀ emission prediction based on soil properties should improve management decisions aimed at reducing tillage-generated PM₁₀.     

Statistical characterization of atmospheric PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations at a non-impacted suburban site of Istanbul, Turkey

Inhalable particulate matter (PM10) has been monitored at several stations by Istanbul Municipality. On the other hand, information about fine fraction aerosols (PM2.5) in Istanbul atmosphere was not reported. In this study, 86 daily aerosol samples were collected between July 2002 and July 2003. The PM10 annual arithmetic mean value of 47.1 microg m(-3), was lower than the Turkish air quality standard of 60 microg m(-3). On the other hand, this value was found higher than the annual European Union air quality PM(10) standard of 40 microg m(-3). Furthermore, the annual mean concentration of PM2.5 20.8 microg m(-3) was found higher than The United States EPA standard of 15 microg m(-3). The statistics and relationships of fine, coarse, and inhalable particles were studied. Cyclic behavior of the monthly average concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 data were investigated. Several frequency distribution functions were used to fit the measured data. According to Chi-squared and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests, the frequency distributions of PM2.5 and PM10 data were found to fit Log-logistic functions.     

Spatial and seasonal variation of PM10 mass concentrations in Taiwan

Hourly data of PM10 concentration collected from an air quality-monitoring network has been analyzed over Taiwan from 1994 to 1999. Fourteen sites from 72 monitoring stations were selected to evaluate the spatial and seasonal variations in the regions of north, southwest, south, east and National Park. The selected monitoring sites are located in a suburban environment, except Nantz and Linyuan that are located in industrial areas. Moreover, Yangming and Hengchuen are located in National Park. Spatial and seasonal variations of PM10 concentrations are rather large over Taiwan. Annual average in south is approximately six times higher than in National parks. In northern sites, the highest concentration occurs in March–May, which is attributed to the occurrence of dust storms in arid regions of central Asia and the transport of dust by northeasterly monsoon. A marked seasonal variation of PM10 concentrations can be observed both in southwestern and southern regions. The pattern is characterized by high concentrations in winter and low in summer. Appearance of the highest monthly PM10 concentration in winter of south may be in part due to the lowest number of monthly precipitation days and low temperature, both of which occurred in winter. The frequency of PM10 daily mean concentration for exceeded 150 μg m⁻³ is 15% during winter in south, which reflects the serious pollution problem there. Monitoring sites in National Park are representatives of remote environments, but the PM10 concentrations are still affected by the dust storms and human activities.     

Analysis of PM10, PM2.5, and PM2 5-10 concentrations in Santiago, Chile, from 1989 to 2001

Daily particle samples were collected in Santiago, Chile, at four urban locations from January 1, 1989, through December 31, 2001. Both fine PM with da < 2.5 microm (PM2.5) and coarse PM with 2.5 < da < 10 microm (PM2.5-10) were collected using dichotomous samplers. The inhalable particle fraction, PM10, was determined as the sum of fine and coarse concentrations. Wind speed, temperature and relative humidity (RH) were also measured continuously. Average concentrations of PM2.5 for the 1989-2001 period ranged from 38.5 microg/m3 to 53 microg/m3. For PM2.5-10 levels ranged from 35.8-48.2 microg/m3 and for PM10 results were 74.4-101.2 microg/m3 across the four sites. Both annual and daily PM2.5 and PM10 concentration levels exceeded the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards and the European Union concentration limits. Mean PM2.5 levels during the cold season (April through September) were more than twice as high as those observed in the warm season (October through March); whereas coarse particle levels were similar in both seasons. PM concentration trends were investigated using regression models, controlling for site, weekday, month, wind speed, temperature, and RH. Results showed that PM2.5 concentrations decreased substantially, 52% over the 12-year period (1989-2000), whereas PM2.5-10 concentrations increased by approximately 50% in the first 5 years and then decreased by a similar percentage over the following 7 years. These decreases were evident even after controlling for significant climatic effects. These results suggest that the pollution reduction programs developed and implemented by the Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente (CONAMA) have been effective in reducing particle levels in the Santiago Metropolitan region. However, particle levels remain high and it is thus imperative that efforts to improve air quality continue.     

PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations in Central and Eastern Europe:: results from the Cesar study

Between November 1995 and October 1996, particulate matter concentrations (PM₁₀ and PM_2.5) were measured in 25 study areas in six Central and Eastern European countries: Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovak Republic. To assess annual mean concentration levels, 24-h averaged concentrations were measured every sixth day on a fixed urban background site using Harvard impactors with a 2.5 and 10 μm cut-point. The concentration of the coarse fraction of PM₁₀ (PM_10−2.5) was calculated as the difference between the PM₁₀ and the PM_2.5 concentration. Spatial variation within study areas was assessed by additional sampling on one or two urban background sites within each study area for two periods of 1 month. QA/QC procedures were implemented to ensure comparability of results between study areas. A two to threefold concentration range was found between study areas, ranging from an annual mean of 41 to 98 μg m⁻³ for PM₁₀, from 29 to 68 μg m⁻³ for PM_2.5 and from 12 to 40 μg m⁻³ for PM_10−2.5. The lowest concentrations were found in the Slovak Republic, the highest concentrations in Bulgaria and Poland. The variation in PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 concentrations between study areas was about 4 times greater than the spatial variation within study areas suggesting that measurements at a single sampling site sufficiently characterise the exposure of the population in the study areas. PM₁₀ concentrations increased considerably during the heating season, ranging from an average increase of 18 μg m⁻³ in the Slovak Republic to 45 μg m⁻³ in Poland. The increase of PM₁₀ was mainly driven by increases in PM_2.5; PM_10−2.5 concentrations changed only marginally or even decreased. Overall, the results indicate high levels of particulate air pollution in Central and Eastern Europe with large changes between seasons, likely caused by local heating.     

Validation of modeling approach to evaluate congener-specific concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in air and soil near a solid waste incinerator

A concise modeling approach using long-term averaged meteorological data was developed to estimate site-specific concentrations of congeners of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) near a solid waste incinerator. This approach consists of calculation of atmospheric dispersion, dry and wet deposition of gaseous and particle-bound congeners, and non-steady-state concentrations in soil. The predictability of this approach was evaluated by comparison of calculated concentrations of congeners in soil with those measured at eight locations near a municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI). The variation of these concentrations due to variability of meteorological parameters is small. A considerable number of mean values show good agreement with measured concentrations within a factor of three. The reasonable agreement between calculated and measured concentrations indicates that algorithms for the calculation of vapor-phase deposition and non-steady-state concentrations in soil must be included in the modeling approach for an accurate estimation of the concentrations of congeners of PCDD/Fs emitted from MSWIs to the atmosphere. For a detailed estimation of site-specific concentrations, it is important to specify the bulk density of soil in the evaluated area, together with meteorological parameters.     

Spatial and temporal characterization of PM2.5 mass concentrations in California, 1980-2007

Systematic measurement of fine particulate matter (aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 microm [PM2.5]) mass concentrations began nationally with implementation of the Federal Reference Method (FRM) network in 1998 and 1999. In California, additional monitoring of fine particulate matter (PM) occurred via a dichotomous sampler network and several special studies carried out between 1982 and 2002. The authors evaluate the comparability of FRM and non-FRM measurements of PM2.5 mass concentrations and establish conversion factors to standardize fine mass measurements from different methods to FRM-equivalent concentrations. The authors also identify measurements of PM2.5 mass concentrations that do not agree with FRM or other independent PM2.5 mass measurements. The authors show that PM2.5 mass can be reconstructed to a high degree of accuracy (r2 > 0.9; mean absolute error approximately 2 microg m(-3)) from PM with an aerodynamic diameter < or =10 microm (PM10) mass and species concentrations when site-specific and season-specific conversion factors are used and a statewide record of fine PM mass concentrations by combining the FRM PM2.5 measurements, non-FRM PM2.5 measurements, and reconstructions of PM2.5 mass concentrations. Trends and spatial variations are evaluated using the integrated data. The rates of change of annual fine PM mass were negative (downward trends) at all 22 urban and 6 nonurban (Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments [IMPROVE]) monitoring locations having at least 15 yr of data during the period 1980-2007. The trends at the IMPROVE sites ranged from -0.05 to -0.25 microg m(-3) yr(-1) (median -0.11 microg m(-3) yr(-1)), whereas urban-site trends ranged from -0.13 to -1.29 microg m(-3) yr(-1) (median -0.59 microg m(-3) yr(-1)). The urban concentrations declined by a factor of 2 over the period of record, and these decreases were qualitatively consistent with changes in emissions of primary PM2.5 and gas-phase precursors of secondary PM. Mean PM2.5 mass concentrations ranged from 3.3 to 7.4 microg m(-3) at IMPROVE sites and from 9.3 to 37.1 microg m(-3) at urban sites.     

A four-year size-segregated characterization study of particles PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 depending on air mass origin at Melpitz

PM₁₀ measurements were started in November 1992 at Melpitz site. The mean PM₁₀ concentration in 1993 was 38 μg m^?3 in the summer season (May until October) and about 44 μg m^?3 in the winter season (November until April). The mean PM₁₀ level decreased until 1999 and varies now in ranges from 20–34 μg m^?3 to 17–24 μg m^?3 (minimum and maximum mean values for 1999–2008) in winter and summer seasons, respectively. High volume filter samples of particles PM₁₀, PM_2.5 and PM₁ were characterized for mass, water-soluble ions, organic and elemental carbon from 2004 until 2008. The percentage of PM_2.5 in PM₁₀ varies between summer (71.6%) and winter seasons (81.9%). Mean concentrations of PM₁₀, PM_2.5 and PM₁ in Melpitz were 20, 15, and 13 μg m^?3 in 2004, 22, 18, and 13 μg m^?3 in 2005, 24, 19, and 12 μg m^?3 in 2006 and 22, 17, and 12 μg m^?3 in 2007, respectively. In the four winters the rural background concentration PM₁₀ at Melpitz exceeded the daily 50 μg m^?3 limit for Europe on 8, 8, 7 and 6 days, respectively.Findings for a simple two-sector-classification of the samples (May 2004 until April 2008) using 96-h backward trajectories for the identification of source regions are: Air masses were transported most of time (60%) from the western sector and secondly (17%) from the eastern sector. The lowest daily mean mass concentration PM₁₀ were found during western inflow in summer (17 μg m^?3) containing low amounts of sulphate (2.4 μg m^?3), nitrate (1.7 μg m^?3), ammonium (1.1 μg m^?3) and TC (3.7 μg m^?3). In opposite the highest mean mass concentration PM₁₀ was found during eastern inflow in winter (35 μg m^?3) with high amounts of sulphate (6.1 μg m^?3), nitrate (5.4 μg m^?3), ammonium (3.8 μg m^?3) and TC (9.4 μg m^?3). An estimation of secondary formed OC (SOA) shows 0.8–0.9 μg m^?3 for air masses from West and 2.1–2.2 μg m^?3 from East. The seasonal difference can be neglected.The half-hourly measurements of the particle mass concentration PM₁₀ evaluated as mean daily courses using a TEOM^® show low values (14–21 μg m^?3) in summer and winter for air masses transported from West and the highest concentrations (31–38 μg m^?3) in winter for air masses from East.The results demonstrate the influence of meteorological parameters on long-range transport, secondary particle mass formation and re-emission which modify mass concentration and composition of PM₁₀, PM_2.5 and PM₁. Melpitz site is located in the East of Germany faraway from strong local anthropogenic emissions (rural background). Therefore, this site is suitable for investigation of the influence of long-range transport of air pollution in continental air masses from the East with source regions inside and outside of the European Union.     

Congener profiles of PCDD/Fs in soil and vegetation samples collected near to a municipal waste incinerator

Recently, we measured the concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) in soil and herbage samples collected in the vicinity of a municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) from Tarragona (Catalonia, Spain). Since these concentrations could be increased by the presence of other emission sources of PCDD/Fs in the same area in which the MSWI is placed, the main goal of the present study was to determine the PCDD/F congener profiles in the soil and vegetation samples collected in 1996 and again in 1997 near to the facility and to compare with those from samples collected in a close area outside of direct emissions of the plant. From an accurate inspection of the PCDD/F congener profiles, it was concluded that PCDD/F emissions from the MSWI here examined are neither the only nor the main responsible for the presence of PCDD/Fs in the samples of environmental matrices collected in the area under direct influence of the plant.     

Study of PCDD/Fs distribution in fly ash,ash deposits,and bottom ash from a medical waste incinerator in China

Over the past decades in China, the number of medical waste incinerators (MWIs) has been rising rapidly, causing emissions of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs). In this study, samples of fly ash, ash deposits, and bottom ash from typical MWIs were analyzed for PCDD/Fs and their distribution characteristics. Results showed international toxic equivalent (I-TEQ) values in the range of 6.9–67 ng I-TEQ/g in fly ash and ash deposits, whereas the concentration in bottom ash was extremely low (only 1.33 pg I-TEQ/g), yet the generation of PCDD/Fs was mostly de novo synthesis in fly ash and ash deposits according to the ratio of PCDFs to PCDDs; the major distribution differences of PCDD/Fs in fly ash was manifested by the content of toxic furan 2,3,7,8-TCDF, but other toxic PCDD/Fs showed similar distribution. Other findings are that 2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF had the most contribution to TEQ concentration, and that the most abundant toxic furan congener is 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDF. Correlation analysis showed that there was no significant correlation between PCDD/Fs concentration and several other physical and chemical parameters.

Implications: This paper is of interest because it presents the emission performances of PCDD/Fs in ash from medical waste incineration in China. PCDD/F contents in fly ash and ash deposits vary between 6.9 and 67.3 ng I-TEQ/g. However, the concentration in bottom ash was extremely low (only 1.33?×?10^?3 ng I-TEQ/g). The fingerprints of PCDD/Fs in fly ash are almost similar, except for 2,3,7,8-TCDF. There is no marked correlation between PCDD/Fs and other physicochemical properties.

Supplemental Materials: Supplemental materials are available for this paper. Go to the publisher's online edition of the Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association.     

Validation of modeling approach to evaluate congener-specific concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in air and soil near a solid waste incinerator.

A concise modeling approach using long-term averaged meteorological data was developed to estimate site-specific concentrations of congeners of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) near a solid waste incinerator. This approach consists of calculation of atmospheric dispersion, dry and wet deposition of gaseous and particle-bound congeners, and non-steady-state concentrations in soil. The predictability of this approach was evaluated by comparison of calculated concentrations of congeners in soil with those measured at eight locations near a municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI). The variation of these concentrations due to variability of meteorological parameters is small. A considerable number of mean values show good agreement with measured concentrations within a factor of three. The reasonable agreement between calculated and measured concentrations indicates that algorithms for the calculation of vapor-phase deposition and non-steady-state concentrations in soil must be included in the modeling approach for an accurate estimation of the concentrations of congeners of PCDD/Fs emitted from MSWIs to the atmosphere. For a detailed estimation of site-specific concentrations, it is important to specify the bulk density of soil in the evaluated area, together with meteorological parameters.     

A consistent method for modelling PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations across the United Kingdom in 2004 for air quality assessment

A modelling method has been developed to map PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 concentrations across the UK at background and roadside locations. Separate models have been calibrated using gravimetric measurements and Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance instruments (TEOM) using source apportionments appropriate to the size fractions and sampling methods. Maps have been prepared for a base year of 2004 and predictions have been calculated for 2010 and 2020 on the basis of current policies. Comparisons of the modelling results with air quality regulations suggest that exceedences of the EU Daughter Directive stage 1 24-h limit value for PM₁₀ at the roadside in 2004 will be largely eliminated by 2020. The concentration cap of 25 μg m⁻³ for PM_2.5 proposed within the CAFÉ Directive is expected to be met at all locations. Projections for 2010 and 2020 suggest that the proposed exposure reduction (ER) target is likely to be considerably more stringent and require additional measures beyond current policies. Thus the model results suggest that the balance between the stringency of the concentration cap and the ER target in the proposed directive is appropriate. Measures to achieve greater reductions should therefore have the maximum public health benefit and air quality policy is not driven by the need to reduce concentrations at isolated ‘hotspots’.     

Low emission zones reduce PM10 mass concentrations and diesel soot in German cities

In many European cities mass concentrations of PM₁₀ (particles less than 10 μm in size) are still exceeding air quality standards as set by the European Commission in 1999. As a consequence, many cities introduced low emission zones (LEZs) to improve air quality and to meet the limit values. In Germany currently 48 LEZs are in operation. By means of dispersion modeling, PM₁₀ concentrations were estimated to decrease up to 10%. Analysis of PM₁₀ levels conducted for Cologne, Berlin, and Munich some time after the LEZs were introduced showed reduction of PM₁₀ mass concentration in the estimated range. The PM₁₀ particle fraction is, however, composed of particles with varying toxicity, of which diesel soot is highly health relevant. An evaluation of air quality data conducted in Berlin showed that in 2010 traffic-related soot concentrations measured along major roads decreased by 52% compared to 2007. Diesel particle emissions in Berlin were reduced in 2012 by 63% compared to a business-as-usual scenario (reference year 2007). A strong reduction of the traffic-related particle fraction of PM_2.5 was also reported for Munich. Therefore, it is likely that the effects of LEZs are considerably more significant to human health than was anticipated when only considering the reduction of PM₁₀ mass concentrations.

Implications: The implementation of low emission zones in German cities might result in a reduction of PM₁₀ levels concentrations by up to 10%. However, it is difficult to show a reduction of PM₁₀ annual averages in this order of magnitude as meteorology has a large impact on the year-to-year variation of PM mass concentrations. Monitoring of other PM metrics such as black smoke (BS) or elemental carbon (EC) might be a better strategy for evaluating LEZs effects. The benefit of low emission zones on human health is far greater than is presently visible from routine measurements of PM₁₀.     

Effects of SO2 and NOx emission reductions on PM2.5 mass concentrations in the southeastern United States

Measurements from sites of the Southeastern Aerosol Research and Characterization (SEARCH) program, made from 1998 to 2001, are used with a thermodynamic equilibrium model, Simulating Composition of Atmospheric Particles at Equilbrium (SCAPE2), to extend an earlier investigation of the responses of fine particulate nitrate (NO3-) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) mass concentrations to changes in concentrations of nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfate (SO42-). The responses were determined for a projected range of variations of SO42- and HNO3 concentrations resulting from adopted and proposed regulatory initiatives. The predicted PM2.5 mass concentration decreases averaged 1.8-3.9 microg/m3 for SO42- decreases of 46-63% from current concentrations. Combining the S042- decrease with a 40% HNO3 decrease from current concentrations (approximating expected mobile-source oxides of nitrogen [NOx] reductions by 2020) yielded additional incremental reductions of mean predicted PM2.5 mass concentration of 0.2 microg/m3 for three nonurban sites and 0.8-1 microg/m3 for one nonurban and two urban sites. Increasing the HNO3 reduction to 55% (an estimate of adding Clear Skies Phase II NOx reductions) yielded additional incremental reductions of mean predicted PM2.5 mass concentration of 0-0.4 microg/m3. Because of the well-documented losses of particulate NO3- from Federal Reference Method (FRM) filters, only a fraction of these incremental changes would be observed.     

Patterns and concentrations of PM10 in a mountainous basin region

In this study, continuous data of PM10 (particles with aerodynamic diameter < 10 microns) concentration measurements for a 4-yr period were analyzed. These measurements have been carried out in the Eordea Basin, an industrial area in the northwestern mountainous region of Greece. The annual, monthly, and diurnal patterns are presented and investigated regarding the prevailing meteorological conditions and atmospheric processes that affect the ambient concentrations of PM10. The effect of wind on controlling PM10 concentration is also discussed. Based on the data analysis, an attempt is made to provide useful information about air quality levels, taking into account U.S. Environmental Protection Agency air quality standards.     

Particle size distribution and PAH concentrations of incense smoke in a combustion chamber

The particle size distribution and the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in incense smoke were studied using a custom-designed combustion chamber. Among the nine types of incense investigated, the particle and the total PAH emission factors varied significantly. The average mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of the smoke aerosol was 262+/-49nm, which positively correlated to particle emission factor (mg/stick, p<0.05). Coagulation was a major mechanism that dictates the MMAD of the smoke. The total toxic equivalency (the sum of the benzo[a]pyrene equivalent concentration) of the solid-phase PAHs (S-PAHs) was over 40 times higher than that of the corresponding gas-phase PAHs, indicating that the S-PAHs in incense smoke may pose potential health risk. Experiments show that each lowered percentage of total carbon content in the raw incense helped decrease the particle emission factor by 2.6mg/g-incense, and the reduction of S-PAH emission factor ranged from 8.7 to 26% when the carbon content was lowered from 45 to 40%.