Behaviour and mobility of preemergent herbicides in turfgrass: A field study

Abstract

The quality of many golf courses and other turfgrass areas often requires high levels of cultural management. The fact that this level of maintenance usually includes the use of preemergent herbicides has caused concern about their potential for ground water contamination. Much of this concern is based on extrapolation from agricultural situations rather than data developed from studies conducted in field turfgrass situations. To address this data gap, a two‐year field project evaluating the behaviour and mobility of the commonly used preemergent herbicides, benfluralin, trifluralin, bensulide, oxadiazon. pendimethalin, and DCPA with its two metabolites was conducted at OARDC/The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, in 1988–89. Plots were located on a site with thatch (WT) and one with no thatch (NT)to further clarify the impact of thatch on herbicide behavior. Treatments were applied in April and samples of thatch and four zones of soil (0–2.5, 2.5–5, 7.5–10 and 22.5–25cm) were collected throughout the year and analyzed for residue dissipation. Residues of pendimethalin, benfluralin, and trifluralin in the 22.5–25 cm zone were below the limit of determination. No detectable oxadiazon residues were found in this zone at the WT site in 1988 but on two occasions, residues of 0.01 and 0.02 kg/ha were found in 1989. At the NT site, residues in this zone on one occasion were 0.02 kg/ha in 1988 and none in 1989. Residues of bensulide in the same zone ranged not detectable (ND)‐0.02 kg/ha in both locations. The DCPA residues in the 22.5–25 cm zone ranged ND‐0.10 kg/ha (WT), ND‐0.27 kg/ha (NT) in 1988. and ND‐0.02 kg/ha (WT), ND‐0.04 kg/ha (NT) in 1989. The residues of SDS 1449, the less stable of two dacthal metabolites, were very low but higher in 1988 than in 1989 in both locations. The SDS 954 residues in 22.5–25 cm zone ranged ND‐0.1 kg/ha (WT), and ND‐0.16 kg/ha (NT) in 1988, and ND‐0.26 kg/ha (WT), and ND‐0.27 kg/ha (NT) in 1989.

Some amount of all herbicides applied carried over into the spring of the year following application but oxadiazon and bensulide were the most persistent.     

Indoor exposure from building materials: A field study

The present study has been conducted in the frame of BUMA (Prioritization of Building Materials Emissions as indoor pollution sources), a European funded project, aiming at assessing the exposure to emitted compounds in indoor air. Field campaigns in five (5) European cities (Milan, Copenhagen, Dublin, Athens and Nicosia) were carried out. These campaigns covered weekly winter and summer concentration measurements in two (2) public buildings and two (2) private houses in each city. BTEX, terpenes, and carbonyls were measured using passive sampling in two sites inside the building and one outside. VOC emission measurements on selected building material have also been performed using Field and Laboratory Emission Cell (FLEC). The results on indoor concentrations for compounds such as formaldehyde (1.2–62.6 μg m^?3), acetaldehyde (0.7–41.6 μg m^?3), toluene (0.9–163.5 μg m^?3), xylenes (0.2–177.5 μg m^?3) and acetone (2.8–308.8 μg m^?3) have shown diversity and relatively significant indoor sources depending on the building type, age etc. Indoor concentrations of these substances are varied depending on the building age and type. The percentage of approximately 40% of the indoor air quality levels originated from building materials.     

Distribution of toxic trace elements in soil/sediment in post-Katrina New Orleans and the Louisiana Delta

This study provided a comprehensive assessment of seven toxic trace elements (As, Pb, V, Cr, Cd, Cu, and Hg) in the soil/sediment of Katrina affected greater New Orleans region 1 month after the recession of flood water. Results indicated significant contamination of As and V and non-significant contamination of Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg and Pb at most sampling sites. Compared to the reported EPA Region 6 soil background inorganic levels, except As, the concentrations of other six elements had greatly increased throughout the studied area; St. Bernard Parish and Plaquemines Parish showed greater contamination than other regions. Comparison between pre- and post-Katrina data in similar areas, and data for surface, shallow, and deep samples indicated that the trace element distribution in post-Katrina New Orleans was not obviously attributed to the flooding. This study suggests that more detailed study of As and V contamination at identified locations is needed.     

Estimating biodiversity impacts without field surveys: A case study in northern Borneo

In many regions of the world, biodiversity surveys are not routinely conducted prior to activities that lead to land conversion, such as development projects. Here we use top-down methods based on global range maps and bottom-up methods based on macroecological scaling laws to illuminate the otherwise hidden biodiversity impacts of three large hydroelectric dams in the state of Sarawak in northern Borneo. Our retrospective impact assessment finds that the three reservoirs inundate habitat for 331 species of birds (3 million individuals) and 164 species of mammals (110 million individuals). A minimum of 2100 species of trees (900 million individuals) and 17 700 species of arthropods (34 billion individuals) are estimated to be affected by the dams. No extinctions of bird, mammal, or tree species are expected due to habitat loss following reservoir inundation, while 4–7 arthropod species extinctions are predicted. These assessment methods are applicable to any data-limited system undergoing land-use change.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13280-015-0683-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Characteristics of indoor aerosols in residential homes in urban locations: a case study in Singapore

As part of a major study to investigate the indoor air quality in residential houses in Singapore, intensive aerosol measurements were made in an apartment in a multistory building for several consecutive days in 2004. The purpose of this work was to identify the major indoor sources of fine airborne particles and to assess their impact on indoor air quality for a typical residential home in an urban area in a densely populated country. Particle number and mass concentrations were measured in three rooms of the home using a real-time particle counter and a low-volume particulate sampler, respectively. Particle number concentrations were found to be elevated on several occasions during the measurements. All of the events of elevated particle concentrations were linked to indoor activities based on house occupant log entries. This enabled identification of the indoor sources that contributed to indoor particle concentrations. Activities such as cooking elevated particle number concentrations < or =2.05 x 10(5) particles/cm3. The fine particles collected on Teflon filter substrates were analyzed for selected ions, trace elements, and metals, as well as elemental and organic carbon (OC) contents. To compare the quality of air between the indoors of the home and the outdoors, measurements were also made outside the home to obtain outdoor samples. The chemical composition of both outdoor and indoor particles was determined. Indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios suggest that certain chemical constituents of indoor particles, such as chloride, sodium, aluminum, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, titanium, vanadium, zinc, and elemental carbon, were derived through migration of outdoor particles (I/O <1 or - 1), whereas the levels of others, such as nitrite, nitrate, sulfate, ammonium, cadmium, chromium, nickel, lead, and OC, were largely influenced by the presence of indoor sources (I/O >1).     

Mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb) in interior and exterior New Orleans house paint films

Pre-1992, latex paint was formulated with mercury (Hg) as phenylmercuric acetate (PMA). Hg vaporizes reducing its content, and lead (Pb) is stable and remains unchanged. The objective of this study is to describe the content of Hg and Pb in existing paint coatings. Forty paint chip samples were collected from both interior and exterior surfaces of homes in metropolitan New Orleans and analyzed for Hg and Pb. The median Hg in exterior paints is 26.9 mg kg(-1) (0.8-214.0) compared with 7.1 mg kg(-1) (0.03-39.2) for interior paints. The median Pb content is 76603 mg kg(-1) (464-317151) and 416 mg kg(-1) (24-63313) respectively, for exterior and interior paints. The Spearman correlation coefficients for Hg and Pb are -0.312 (P=0.13) and -0.471 (P=0.07) respectively, in exterior and interior samples. Hg and Pb vary independently with each other in paint films. Median Hg in exterior paints is four times larger than for interior paints. Median Pb in exterior paints is 184 times larger than interior paints. The Pb and Hg content in exterior and interior paint chips are significantly different (Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test, P0.001 and P=0.006, respectively). Only 1 of the 25 exterior paints contained less than the current 5000 mg kg(-1) US standard for Pb, the criteria for exemption from the power-sanding restrictions of the New Orleans Lead Ordinance. Prior to banning PMA in paint, Hg poisonings presented as acrodynia were reported for children living in homes freshly painted with latex paint. Because of the affinity of Hg and Pb for sulfur-containing amino acid proteins, their presence in paint coatings poses an increased hazard when released as dust.     

Movement and fate of detergents in groundwater: a field study

The major cations, anions, and detergents in a plume of contaminated groundwater at Otis Air Base on Cape Cod (Mass., U.S.A.) have moved approximately 3.5 km down gradient from the disposal beds. We hypothesize that the detergents form two distinct plumes, which consist of alkyl benzene sulfonates (ABS) detergents and linear alkyl sulfonates (LAS) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (NaLS) detergents. The ABS detergents were deposited from approximately 1940 through 1965, when ABS detergents were banned. From 1965 to the present, LAS and NaLS detergents were in the sewage. The ABS detergents appear to be transported in the aquifer at the same rate as the specific conductance (major cations and anions) and boron, which are currently used as conservative tracers of the plume of contaminated groundwater. There appears to be little or no biological degradation of the ABS detergents in the aquifer, based on their concentration in the plume. On the other hand, the LAS and NaLS detergents have degraded rapidly and have been detected only 0.6 km down gradient. The roleof the detergents in the transport of other organic compounds in the plume is nuclear. There is a separation of the ABS detergent plume and the volatile organic compound plume; however, the time of entry of the detergents and the volatile organic compounds is unknown. Therefore, it is not possible to conclude on the interaction of these two classes of compounds.     

Forests under the Southern Cross: The forest environmental frontier in Australia and New Zealand

Australia and New Zealand share many historical and contemporary commonalities. These define five contemporary forest environmental frontiers—for First Nations peoples, between agriculture and forestry, in forest management, in urban and peri-urban environments, and in relation to climate change. In both countries, the First Nations frontier is expanding in scale and significance with those peoples’ rights to land and forests. Frontiers with agriculture and in forest management are longstanding but dynamic and as yet little realised in relation to the need for forest and landscape restoration. Both countries are highly urbanised, elevating the significance of the urban and peri-urban frontier, particularly in the context of climate change. In both countries, forests will be profoundly impacted by climate change and are central to mitigation and adaptation strategies. Experience within and intersections between the frontiers offer encouraging prospects for synergies and for learning between the two countries and more widely.     

A field study on residues of four insecticides used in strawberry protection

Abstract

In 1986 strawberry plots were treated with dimethoate, malathion, permethrin and cypermethrin at 80% bloom of primary flowers. In 1987 the plots were sprayed with dimethoate, malathion and permethrin at 30% bloom. Residue analysis of these insecticides on the flowers were analyzed using solvent extraction and gas liquid chromatography. Residue analysis at 0 to 18 days on flowers and fruit showed an exponential decrease. Organophosphates tended to degrade more quickly than synthetic pyrethroids. The results are discussed in the context of an integrated pest management program.     

Rodent sperm analysis in field-based ecological risk assessment: pilot study at Ravenna army ammunition plant,Ravenna, Ohio

Ecological risk assessment (ERA) guidance recommends that field-truthing efforts proceed when modeled hazard quotients (HQs) suggest that toxicological effects are occurring to site receptors. To date, no field methods have been proposed by the regulatory community that can lead to definitive determinations of acceptable or unacceptable risk for birds and mammals, the two terrestrial classes of receptors that are commonly assessed using the HQ method. This paper describes rodent sperm analysis (RSA) as a viable method to be applied in the field at sites with historical contamination. RSA is capable of detecting biological differences that bear on reproduction, a highly regarded toxicological endpoint of concern in USEPA Superfund-type ERAs. The results of RSA's first application at a study site are reported and discussed. The paper also provides the rationale for RSA's efficacy in the context of Superfund and other environmental cleanup programs, where limited time and money are available to determine and evaluate the field condition.     

Using the chemical mass balance model to estimate VOC source contributions in newly built timber frame houses: a case study

Basing on the material emission data obtained in a test chamber, chemical mass balance (CMB) was used to assess the source apportionment of volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations in three newly built timber frame houses. CMB has been proven to be able to discriminate the source contributions for two contrasted environmental conditions (with and without ventilation). The shutdown of the ventilation system caused an increase in the VOC concentrations due to the increased contribution of indoor surface materials like the door material and furniture explaining together over 65% of total VOCs. While the increase in formaldehyde concentration is mainly due to furniture (contribution of 70%), the increase in α-pinene concentration is almost exclusively attributable to the emission of door material (up to 84%). The apportionment of VOC source contributions appears as highly dependent on the position of source materials in the building (surface materials or internal materials) and the ventilation conditions explaining that the concentrations of compounds after the shutdown of ventilation system do not increase in equivalent proportion. Knowledge of indoor sources and its contributions in real conditions may help in the selection of materials and in the improvement of construction operations to reduce the indoor air pollution.     

Sampling atmospheric pesticides with SPME: Laboratory developments and field study

To estimate the atmospheric exposure of the greenhouse workers to pesticides, solid phase microextraction (SPME) was used under non-equilibrium conditions. Using Fick's law of diffusion, the concentrations of pesticides in the greenhouse can be calculated using pre-determined sampling rates (SRs). Thus the sampling rates (SRs) of two modes of SPME in the lab and in the field were determined and compared. The SRs for six pesticides in the lab were 20.4-48.3 mL min⁻¹ for the exposed fiber and 0.166-0.929 mL min⁻¹ for the retracted fiber. In field sampling, two pesticides, dichlorvos and cyprodinil were detected with exposed SPME. SR with exposed SPME for dichlorvos in the field (32.4 mL min^-1) was consistent with that in the lab (34.5 mL min^-1). SR for dichlorvos in the field (32.4 mL min⁻¹) was consistent with that in the lab (34.5 mL min⁻¹). The trends of temporal concentration and the inhalation exposure were also obtained.     

Small town lead levels: a case study from the homes of pre-schoolers in Mt. Pleasant, Michigan

This study evaluates the relationship between household Pb levels and four variables (home age, distance to road, traffic volume adjacent to the home, and the amount of exposed soil) for 42 homes in a small city. As a whole, Pb levels for the Mt. Pleasant sample were very low compared to large cities. Home age appeared to have the greatest impact on Pb levels as determined by atomic absorption soil = 65 microg g(-1), vacuum dust = 620 microg g(-1), window sill = 291 microg m(-1), indoor play area = 22 microg m(-1), and home entrance = 291 microg m(-1). The correlation coefficient for increasing home age and soil Pb level was r=0.63 (p<0.000). An inverse relationship (r=-0.45, p=0.003) occurred between soil Pb levels and distance from the road. Household Pb levels generally increased both with higher traffic volumes and greater amounts of exposed soil although both trends were not statistically significant. Study participants kept their home in a good to excellent state of repair and resided on lightly trafficked streets; as such, Pb deposition through the weathering of Pb-based paint and the former combustion of leaded gasoline was minimized.     

A field study on EROD activity and quantitative hepatocytological changes in an immature demersal fish

Demersal fish, Solea ovata, were sampled from a reference site and a site where highly contaminated sediment is dumped. Sexually immature fish from the contaminated site exhibited significantly higher EROD activity compared with counterparts sampled from the reference site. No significant difference in EROD activity could be found for sexually mature males and females between sites. The relationship between EROD activity and quantitative changes in hepatic lipofuscin/ceroid, as well as peroxisome, was investigated for immature S. ovata. A significant correlation was found between EROD activity and volume density of lipofuscin/ceroid in fish hepatocyte (r = 0.750; P < 0.05), but no significant correlation was discernible between EROD activity and peroxisomes. Results from this field study corroborate our earlier laboratory findings, in which induction of EROD activity by intraperitoneal injection of benzo[a]pyrene was associated with increase in absolute volume and absolute number of lipofuscin/ceroid in hepatocytes. The present study provides further evidence that induction of EROD activity is associated with an increase in hepatic lipofuscin/ceroid and possibly cytological damages in immature S. ovata. This cytological change may serve as a potential marker for exposure to PAHs and PCBs.     

A case study of molinate application in a Portuguese rice field: herbicide dissipation and proposal of a clean-up methodology

This study was designed to monitor molinate losses in surface and underground waters during Ordram application in a rice field situated in central Portugal. Water samples were collected from different sites, before, during and about one month and a half after Ordram application. Molinate quantification was based on a solid-phase microextraction (SPME) method followed by gas chromatography with flame photometric detector (GC-FPD) analysis, and led to the conclusion that the herbicide was dissipated in the environment, reaching levels as high as 3.9 microgl(-1) in underground water and 15.8 microgl(-1) in the river receiving tail waters. The feasibility of the application of treatment methodologies based on adsorption or biodegradation as processes to remove molinate from real-world waters was assessed. These methods seem suitable to reduce molinate concentrations to values in the range of the legally recommended limits (<0.5 microgl(-1)).     

CALPUFF and AERMOD model validation study in the near field: Martins Creek revisited

This paper describes a near-field validation study involving the steady-state, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guideline model AERMOD and the nonsteady-state puff model CALPUFF. Relative model performance is compared with field measurements collected near Martins Creek, PA-a rural, hilly area along the Pennsylvania-New Jersey border. The principal emission sources in the study were two coal-fired power plants with tall stacks and buoyant plumes. Over 1 yr of sulfur dioxide measurements were collected at eight monitors located at or above the two power plants' stack tops. Concurrent meteorological data were available at two sites. Both sites collected data 10 m above the ground. One of the sites also collected sonic detection and ranging measurements up to 420 m above ground. The ability of the two models to predict monitored sulfur dioxide concentrations was assessed in a four-part model validation. Each part of the validation applied different criteria and statistics to provide a comprehensive evaluation of model performance. Because of their importance in regulatory applications, an emphasis was placed on statistics that demonstrate the model's ability to reproduce the upper end of the concentration distribution. On the basis of the combined results of the four-part validation (i.e., weight of evidence), the performance of CALPUFF was judged to be superior to that of AERMOD.     

A field study of the generation of nitrate in a hill cap cloud

A field experiment to investigate the formation of nitrate as an airstream passes through a hill cap cloud has been performed at the UMIST field station on Great Dun Fell. It has been shown that the aerosol nitrate concentration increased by about 0.5 microg m(-3) as the airstream passed through the cloud during the night. At sunrise the nitrate production disappeared. It is suggested that the most likely mechanism for this nitrate production was due to the solution of N2O5 and NO3 formed from the reaction of NO2 with O3. These higher oxides build up overnight in the absence of short wave radiation to photolyse them. Other possible mechanisms of nitrate production are also discussed.     

Ambient air concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in Ohio: Sources and health risk assessment

PCDD and PCDF were measured in air samples collected in Ohio in 1987. No 2,3,7,8-TCDD was detected in any of the samples with a detection limits of less than 240 fg/m³. Using a chemical mass balance model applied to PCDD/PCDF congener group profiles, major potential sources of these compounds to the atmosphere in Ohio were determined to be municipal solid waste combustion, and sewage sludge combustion. Cancer risk calculations for inhalation of PCDD/PCDF in ambient air in Ohio are approximately 10–6. Given the current knowledge of the health effects of exposure to PCDD/PCDF in air, there is no appreciable risk to public health for the levels of these compounds found in ambient air in Ohio.     

Molecular and serological study on congenital toxoplasmosis in newborn of Shiraz,Southern Iran

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic disease caused by an obligatory intracellular parasite, Toxoplasma gondii. The congenital form of the disease is a...     

Aerially guided leak detection and repair: A pilot field study for evaluating the potential of methane emission detection and cost-effectiveness

Novel aerial methane (CH₄) detection technologies were used in this study to identify anomalously high-emitting oil and gas (O&G) facilities and to guide ground-based “leak detection and repair” (LDAR) teams. This approach has the potential to enable a rapid and effective inspection of O&G facilities under voluntary or regulatory LDAR programs to identify and mitigate anomalously large CH₄ emissions from a disproportionately small number of facilities. This is the first study of which the authors are aware to deploy, evaluate, and compare the CH₄ detection volumes and cost-effectiveness of aerially guided and purely ground-based LDAR techniques. Two aerial methods, the Kairos Aerospace infrared CH₄ column imaging and the Scientific Aviation in situ aircraft CH₄ mole fraction measurements, were tested during a 2-week period in the Fayetteville Shale region contemporaneously with conventional ground-based LDAR. We show that aerially guided LDAR can be at least as cost-effective as ground-based LDAR, but several variable parameters were identified that strongly affect cost-effectiveness and which require field research and improvements beyond this pilot study. These parameters include (i) CH₄ minimum dectectable limit of aerial technologies, (ii) emission rate size distributions of sources, (iii) remote distinction of fixable versus nonfixable CH₄ sources (“leaks” vs. CH₄ emissions occurring by design), and (iv) the fraction of fixable sources to total CH₄ emissions. Suggestions for future study design are provided.

Implications: Mitigation of methane leaks from existing oil and gas operations currently relies on on-site inspections of all applicable facilities at a prescribed frequency. This approach is labor- and cost-intensive, especially because a majority of oil and gas–related methane emissions originate from a disproportionately small number of facilities and components. We show for the first time in real-world conditions how aerial methane measurements can identify anomalously high-emitting facilities to enable a rapid, focused, and directed ground inspection of these facilities. The aerially guided approach can be more cost-effective than current practices, especially when implementing the aircraft deployment improvements discussed here.