Regional Perspectives on Resource Policy: Implementing Sustainable Management in New Zealand

In 1991, New Zealand implemented new legislation to govern the management of natural resources and the environment. The Resource Management Act establishes sustainable management as the guiding principle for decisions in respect of the allocation and use of natural resources. The reform has also brought about the devolution of decision-making authority from central government to the local level. Underlying this shift to a 'bottom up' decision-making framework is the belief that it is communities of interest that should have the most direct voice in the allocation and use of natural resources. Regional policy statements will be amongst the most important mechanisms through which the principle of sustainable management will be implemented at the local scale. A sample of these policy documents is reviewed, with the aim to identify what specific regional interpretations are given to the principle of sustainable management, what particular resource management issues are considered to underpin the achievement of the principle and to identify what visions have been crafted for the future. An underlying objective was to identify whether characteristics of locality have influenced the interpretations of sustainable management.     

Comparative Analysis of New Zealand and US Approaches for Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pollution Management

The role of the central government in New Zealand is generally limited to research and policy development, and regional councils are responsible for most monitoring and management of the problem. The role of the federal government in the United States includes research and monitoring, policy development, and regulation. States also have a significant management role. Both countries rely on voluntary approaches for NPS pollution management. Very few national water quality standards exist in New Zealand, whereas standards are widely used in the United States. Loading estimates and modeling are often used in the United States, but not in New Zealand. A wide range of best management practices (BMPs) are used in the United States, including buffer strips and constructed/engineered wetlands. Buffer strips and riparian management have been emphasized and used widely in New Zealand. Many approaches are common to both countries, but management of the problem has only been partly successful. The primary barriers are the inadequacy of the voluntary approach and the lack of scientific tools that are useful to decision-makers. More work needs to be performed on the evaluation of approaches developed in both countries that could be applied in the other countries. In addition, more cooperation and information/technology transfer between the two countries should be encouraged in the future.     

Contesting governance of indigenous forests in New Zealand: The case of the West Coast Forest Accord

This paper uses the concept of ‘governance’ and the related notion of ‘multi-layered’ forest management decision making as an overarching framework for analysis of conflict between different stakeholder groups with contrasting perceptions about ‘appropriate’ use of indigenous forests in a New Zealand case study. In New Zealand, recent institutional reforms inspired by neo-liberal policy agendas have led to substantial conflicts between segments of society over the ‘appropriate’ governance of remnant indigenous forests. This study focuses on the West Coast Forest Accord (WCFA) as an illustration of the attempt to change governance structures of indigenous forest management by re-regulating the indigenous forest industry. It is argued that by seeking to accommodate multiple stakeholder interests, in particular industry, community and environmental groups, the WCFA was doomed to fail, as multiple, and often conflicting, stakeholder agendas focused on the goal of ‘sustainable management’ of indigenous forests could no longer be reconciled. Notwithstanding the shift in emphasis from government towards governance in the recent literature, the study findings confirm a continuing strong role by the state as an actor in the forestry sector in New Zealand.     

Environmental problem-solving and land-use management: A proposed structure for Australia

A three-tiered structure of land-use and environmental management is here proposed for Australia. The structure is based on the idea that environment means the environment of people, and that environmental problems arise when a change in the interaction between people and their environment leads to conflicts about the use of land and resources. The heterogeneity of society means that a range of human aspirations and value systems must be satisfied by environmental managers. Existing methods of environmental management fail to achieve these objectives, due to inadequate perception of environmental problems by decision-makers, and the inability of currently available impact assessment techniques to resolve human conflicts associated with the use of land and resources. The main work of planning and managing land use and the environment would be carried out by regional authorities, supported by federal and state policy. Examples are given of moves towards regional administration in England and Wales, Western Australia, Australia and New Zealand. Community participation in the decision-making process is essential and can be achieved by electoral representation to the authoritative bodies and through procedures that ensure informed public comment on planning proposals.     

Managing the intractable: communicative structures for management of hexachlorobenzene and other scheduled wastes

This paper explores issues of governance and decision-making structures associated with the problem of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) waste at Botany in New South Wales. From a government perspective, the problem is ‘downstream’ of a well-known national controversy over whether Australia should have a high-temperature incinerator (HTI) to ‘dispose’ of such scheduled wastes. The 1992 decision not to proceed with HTI followed an extensive process of public consultation, which, against the expectations of industry and government, saw the emergence of Australia-wide community opposition. Alternative national management plans were formulated for the treatment of several types of organochlorine waste, with the scheme of these plans first approved in 1993 by the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC). The HCB Management Plan is one of three such plans (the others being for PCBs and organochlorine pesticides). With this, ANZECC established the Scheduled Waste Management Group comprising government officials, and the National Advisory Body (NAB) made up of stakeholders. Officially the NAB had oversight of the HCB problem until 2002 when it was disbanded. As a result of the HTI experience, new community consultation protocols were introduced in association with the alternative management plans. For HCBs, which are confined almost entirely to Orica's Botany site in southeastern Sydney, this led to the establishment of the Community Participation and Review Committee (CPRC), a representative body with review and advisory functions. This paper draws conclusions from this history about government processes of decision making, the role of individual and institutional actors, the central importance of trust, and the democratisation of risk management. Using concepts delineated by McDonell [1991. Toxic waste management in Australia: why did policy reform fail? Environment 33(6), 11–13, 33–39; 1997. Scientific and everyday knowledge: trust and the politics of environmental initiatives. Social Studies of Science 27, 819–863.] we identify swings towards, then away from institutionalised trust. Across two decades, government and industry have placed faith in centrally controlled mechanisms for public participation, hoping to garner trust and legitimate privileged technological solutions. On the ‘backswings’, these processes have seen public trust dissipate in the face of government misunderstanding of the opportunities for effective bureaucratic interventions.     

基于共词分析的城市生活垃圾治理公共政策变迁量化分析

以1979—2020年我国中央政府颁发的411份城市生活垃圾治理政策文本作为研究对象,运用共词与聚类分析方法研究了我国不同时期城市生活垃圾治理公共政策焦点的演变规律。结果发现:纵观我国城市生活垃圾治理公共政策焦点的演变轨迹,在"技术路线"、"垃圾属性"、"管理手段"、"治理结构"和"保障机制"方面发生了显著的政策主题变迁,呈现出垃圾治理朝更加绿色、更加经济方向发展的趋势。未来,应从监管体系、资源评估、财政补贴、空间布局4个方面保障生活垃圾零污染、高价值资源化治理。     

SOCIAL FEASIBILITY AS AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO WATER RESOURCE PLANNING1

ABSTRACT: Research suggests that conflict over public participation in water resource planning is due, in part, to confusion over the nature of the policies involved. This article examines the roadblocks to citizen involvement in water resource planning in terms of two policy models: (1) the Social Feasibility Model and (2) the Political Feasibility Model. Each model posits a different role for public participation. Although the Political Feasibility Model has been widely accepted in water resource planning, changes in the nature of the policies involved in water resource management have weakened its appropriateness. Currently, social and redistributive policies involving value conflicts often dominate water planning and these policies are best chosen through the Social Feasibility Model. The article discusses the nature of the social feasibility model, the new types of policy decisions facing water resource managers, and how the social feasibility model can help overcome the roadblocks to increased public participation in water resource policy making.     

Environmental values,conflicts and issues in evaluation

Summary The existence of conflicts over the use of resources and with respect to the environment is widely acknowledged. The fields of resource management and environmental planning are, in fact, largely dedicated to identifying and resolving such conflicts. In this paper it is proposed that the sources of conflict can be seen in terms of the different values held by groups and individuals in relation to the environment and resource use. The discussion is also concerned with identifying more specifically the nature of conflicts that arise in relation to particular resource-use issues. A further important proposition developed is that in order to promote effective planning, rigorous and systematic methods of analysis are often required. Those best suited to evaluation in environmental and resources planning are capable of incorporating multiple metrics.Dr Chris Cocklin is Lecturer in Geography and an Associate of Environmental Science at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. His research interests are in resources and environmental management, energy studies and rural land-use analysis and planning. The main focus of his work to date has been on the development and application of appropriate methods of analysis to assist in the formulation of suitable management strategies.This paper is based on a presentation made to the New Zealand Geographical Society (Auckland Branch) Annual Lecture Series, 12th August 1987.     

Assessing alternative energy technologies for developing countries: Technology assessment groups and software

Summary This paper compares two forms of public participation in the assessment of appropriate energy technologies: a centralised top- down approach, and an approach based on grass roots empowerment. The example chosen to demonstrate the former is the Community Based Technology Assessment Program in the United States, and examples of the latter are drawn from efforts at assessing biogas technologies in Korea, Thailand and Papua New Guinea. The analysis includes the assessment of each case study in terms of conditions for public participation derived from the literature. Findings point to the need for empowered technology assessment groups and institutional support for program implementation, or "software", for future efforts at diffusing alternative energy technologies to rural settlements in developing countries. In addition, a role for women in technology assessment is recommended.Mr Subbakrishna has been involved with rural development processes in Nigeria, Kenya and India. With a background in the Earth Sciences from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, his current specialisation is in natural resource management and energy policy. He is currently engaged in doctoral work at the Energy Center, University of Pennsylvania, USA.Julia Gardner teaches Environmental Management in the School of Community and Regional Planning at the University of British Columbia. She holds a PhD in Geography from the University of Canterbury, New Zealand. Her current research is in the areas of sustainable development and citizen involvement in natural resource management, based at the Westwater Research Center, University of British Columbia.     

Environmental management of the Sea of Galillee

Summary It perhaps would be unproductive at this point to debate whether the Kinneret was indeed threatened by the changes wrought in its watershed area and its utilization as a reservoir, or whether it has been eutrophic for thousands of years and would have continued so with or without human management. What is more important, perhaps, is that as a result of highly motivated government efforts, a useful mechanism has been established to provide data collection, constant feedback, physical planning, monitoring, research, and administration for the Kinneret and its watershed. Most important, the tripartite management group overseeing the Kinneret's interests, armed with an abundance of scientific data and administrative clout, has been able to transform facts into practical solutions. Their efforts are a welcome assurance that this important national and international resource will be protected, perhaps even improved, instead of merely saved for future generations.     

New Zealand's Planning Revolution Five Years On: A Preliminary Assessment

It is now five years since New Zealand radically changed its environmental planning regime by introducing the Resource ManagementAct 1991 (RMA). The RMA swept away the entire tradition of town and country planning which New Zealand had inherited from Britain, replacing this with an integrated framework for resource management that attempts to emphasize efficiency, sustainability and public participation in the new system of development control. These new emphases of the RMA reflect the agendasof New Zealand'sgreen and New Right lobbies which gained political influence during the 1980s.However,the green and neo-liberal agendaswhich the RMA attempts to embrace are potentially contradictory. In this paper we investigate this potential contradiction through a preliminary assessment of the first five year's of the new legislation's implementation.In particular, we focus on the operational success, or otherwise, of three 'efficiency' innovations of the RMA, and consider the consequences of these for the environmental and public participation ideals of the legislation.     

Urban estuarine systems under stress: Environmental issues facing Louisiana's Lake pontchartrain

Summary Lake Pontchartrain is part of a brackish coastal estuarine system which serves as an important economic and recreational resource for the New Orleans region. Seafood extraction, shell dredging and leisure time activities are the major uses occurring on Lake Pontchartrain. In the past several decades, man has severely altered this system through urbanization, industrial activity, levée construction and subsequent destruction of wetlands surrounding the lake. There is a growing awareness of the environmental crisis facing Lake Pontchartrain, advanced by recent fish kills, detection of toxic chemicals, curtailment of recreational opportunities and the report of dead zones in the lake. This study summarizes a series of international environmental management techniques and examines the utilization of a regional structure for water resources management in the Lake Pontchartrain Basin.Dr. Fritz Wagner is Director and Professor of the School of Urban and Regional Studies at the University of New Orleans and David Hart was a Research Assistant in the same school, and is now employed in a local engineering and planning company.     

Application of the pressure-state-response framework to perceptions reporting of the state of the New Zealand environment

The Pressure-State-Response framework for environmental reporting was used as a basis to develop a long-term study of people's perceptions of the state of the New Zealand environment. A postal survey of 2000 people, randomly drawn from the New Zealand electoral roll was used to gather data--an effective response rate of 48% was achieved. A range of different resource sectors was examined. We report on New Zealand's air, native animals and plants, and marine fisheries, as well as New Zealand compared to other developed countries. Respondents generally considered that in terms of pressures, states and responses, New Zealand was performing better than other developed countries and that for the resources examined here overall performance was in the adequate to good range, except for marine fisheries. The survey appears to be a useful tool for linking perceptions data into State of the Environment reporting. It also helps identify policy issues where perceptions do not match other scientific evidence or management initiatives. Such findings can be important for the successful implementation of policy measures.     

The potential of public engagement in sustainable waste management: designing the future for biosolids in New Zealand

Strategies for beneficial use of biosolids in New Zealand and elsewhere are currently focused primarily on land application. The long-term success of these and other strategies is dependent not only on technical factors, but also on their environmental, economic, social and cultural sustainability. This paper briefly reviews the situation with respect to biosolids management in New Zealand, where land application is not yet widespread; the rise in public opposition to land application in the United States; and the biosolids industry's approach to public engagement. We argue that, at least until recently, the industry has misinterpreted the nature and meaning of public opposition and thus substituted public relations for public engagement. We argue that genuine public engagement is necessary and that its purpose cannot be to gain public acceptance for an already-decided-upon strategy. It therefore calls for humility among biosolids managers, including a willingness to open up the framing of 'the problem', to acknowledge areas of uncertainty, and to recognise the role of values in 'technical' decision-making. We then present and analyse an example of the use of the scenario workshop process for public participation in biosolids management policy in Christchurch, New Zealand, and conclude that scenario workshops and related methods represent an opportunity to enhance sustainable waste management when certain conditions are met.     

The ethics and politics of the caged layer hen debate in New Zealand

Changes in attitudes toward animal welfare, with a greater emphasis on the importance of allowing animals to express normal patterns of behavior has led to an examination of the practice of keeping hens in battery cages. There is widespread scientific consensus that the conditions of confinement and the barren nature of battery cages severely restrict hens’ behavioral repertoire, and are thus detrimental to their welfare. The New Zealand Animal Welfare Act 1999, stipulates that animals must have “the opportunity to display normal patterns of behaviour.” In spite of this provision, the New Zealand government has not acted in phasing out battery cages, arguing instead that there is insufficient evidence that welfare will be improved by a phase-out. There is evidence of strong industry pressure on the government, and the use of tactics common in policy considerations where changes are resisted by powerful interests. It is important that policy processes are better managed so that welfare changes are based on both public preferences and scientific knowledge, and ways of doing this are discussed.     

Decentralized Natural Resource Management: From State to Co-management in India

In India, as in many parts of the developing world, the dominant view has been that local people are causing natural resource degradation. New thinking in the natural resource management domain is gradually replacing the older views blaming local people for decline of natural resources. The new approach advocates decentralization of natural resource management. This is discussed in this paper in relation to the ongoing decentralization reforms in India. The centralized approach dominated natural resource management in India during the colonial period. The government after independence conveniently adopted the same approach, excluding local people from forests. Recent research and resistance from grassroot movements led to a paradigm shift towards decentralization at the policy level in natural resource management. It is not clear whether the new Joint Forest Management (JFM) policy in India is an attempt to institutionalize state dominance, or if it will lead to real decentralization. The data from several villages adjacent to the Sariska Tiger Reserve (STR), Rajasthan, India show that state dominance is still prevalent, despite constraints. The real challenge lies in providing flexibility within the JFM policy to adapt to local conditions in natural resource management.     

Sustainability in the USA and New Zealand: explaining and addressing the implementation gap in local government

This paper describes the frustrating reality of sustainability implementation in the USA and New Zealand (NZ), an early adopter of sustainability mandates. Local government has a key role in implementation, but has been slow to uptake sustainable practices. We surveyed senior planners in small to medium-sized local government agencies in both countries to identify which features of local government support (or hinder) sustainability in practice.

Environmentally sustainable practices are not well entrenched in either country. In the USA, the framing of sustainability and public support are significant predictors of implementation. However, sustainability is rarely a priority. In NZ, local government capacity is the main driver of implementation. We recommend that planners promote sustainability values, reconcile economic development goals with sustainability (e.g., green economy model), and translate public support for sustainability into institutional priorities. NZ localities also need increased capacity and US localities need continued Federal and State support.     

Two decades,three WEEE systems: How far did EPR evolve in Korea's resource circulation policy?

Extended producer responsibility (EPR) has become a dominant policy paradigm for the management of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) in the last two decades. In South Korea the principle has guided the evolution of the resource circulation policy even before its official introduction through a revision of the recycling law in 2002. Elements of producer responsibilities could be found in the producer-based deposit refund system (DRS) a decade earlier and they were strengthened through the enactment of a new resource circulation law in 2008. This article reviews the policy changes in South Korea for the management of WEEE during the past 20 years. The focus of the analysis is on the impacts of EPR and the producers’ responses that were expressed through the quantity and the quality of material flows in the society. The findings are discussed in light of international experiences in order to outline measures to improve the effectiveness of the EPR-based resource circulation policy that could have broader implications beyond the case study.     

Sustainable wetland management strategies under uncertainties

Wetlands are widely recognized as transitional areas between terrestrial and aquatic systems. They provide multifunctional benefits, most prominently relating to the ecosystem, the economy and to scenic quality. Extensive areas of wetlands have been lost, either as a direct result of redesignation for other uses, especially industrial and recreational, or by qualitative degradation arising from water pollution. Although researchers have been involved in prolonged debate over wetland sustainable use management issues, the uncertain substitutability and irreversibility factors surrounding wetland functions have rarely been addressed. In considering policies for wetland resource management, decision rules and procedures must be adapted to reflect those uncertainties. In this study, the author incorporates the concept of the safe minimum standard of conservation approach to take account of natural and social uncertainties attending public decisions. By this approach, not only is the role of uncertain substitutability and irreversibility prioritized in addressing wetland sustainable use management strategies, but related policy implications may also be considered.     

The Science of Politics/The Politics of Science: Examining the Snowmobile Controversy in Yellowstone National Park

The snowmobile controversy in Yellowstone National Park not only pits snowmobilers against environmentalists, but it also pits the Bush Administration against the Clinton Administration. Caught in the middle are the National Park Service, scores of natural and social scientists, and Yellowstones permanent residents—the flora and fauna. The controversys political aspects are the focus of this paper; specifically, the tenuous relationship among research scientists, whose job it is to inform management and policy decisions; politicians, whose job it is to formulate those same decisions in the public arena; and public land management agencies, whose job it is to implement the decisions. The crux of the paper concerns the politicization of natural resource policy and ways in which research scientists tend to get caught up in it. Lessons learned from this Yellowstone episode regarding the role of science in policy-making processes are also considered. Two recent federal court rulings shed additional light on the politics surrounding Yellowstones snowmobile controversy, as does the importance of governmental checks and balances in resolving natural resource management disputes.