Performance assessment studies of models for water flow and radionuclide transport in vegetated soils using lysimeter data

Increasingly the burial of nuclear waste in deep underground repositories is being regarded as a safe long-term solution for disposal. However, to support this safety assessment models of the associated risks are required. An important component of these models is the upward migration of radionuclides from a contaminated water table into arable and pasture crops. A five-year experiment to investigate the processes which control these transfers has been undertaken at Imperial College. Selected data from this experiment were made available to participants of the BIOMOVS II programme in order to allow them to perform blind hydrological and radionuclide transport simulations. The results show the importance of correctly characterising the soil hydrology and indicate that model conceptualisations derived from surface contamination studies may not adequately capture the various processes which influence the upward movement of radionuclides in the vadose zone. These include not only the water movement, but also chemical and biological processes. Finally, the difficulty and importance of a priori parameter selection is highlighted.     

长江源区基于坡面尺度的土壤水热过程模拟研究

长江源多年冻土区土壤水热传输过程机理与模拟,是广泛关系到高原生态环境保护恢复和区域水文过程的关键科学问题。因此,以GEOtop模型为研究平台,以长江源不同植被盖度下（裸地、30%、65%和92%）高寒草甸的观测数据为基础,检验模型对土壤水热迁移过程的描述与模拟精度。总体而言,GEOtop模型需要率定的参数较少,从而减少模型模拟的不确定性,提高了模拟精度。对不同植被盖度下土壤温度、水分和实际蒸散发模拟的NSE 系数基本达到08,表明模型能准确模拟高寒生态系统土壤的水热传输过程,可以作为长江源区土壤水热过程的有效模拟工具     

Soil transport and plant uptake of radio-iodine from near-surface groundwater

This paper describes a 12-month experiment designed to study the extent of upward migration of (125)I (as a surrogate for (129)I) from near-surface groundwater, through a 50-cm column of soil and into perennial ryegrass. The water table was established at a depth of 45 cm below the soil surface. By 3 months, (125)I had migrated about half way up the soil column. After this, it tended to accumulate just above this mid-point, with only very small amounts being transported to the upper 20 cm of soil. This behaviour seemed to be explained well by soil moisture and redox conditions. The experiment indicated that (125)I was mobile only within the saturated/low redox zone at the base of the soil column and accumulated in the zone of transition between anoxic and oxic soil conditions. Uptake of (125)I by the ryegrass was found to be low.     

Re-emission of heavy water vapour from soil to the atmosphere

The re-emission process of tritiated water (HTO) deposited on a soil surface is an important process to assess tritium doses to the general public around nuclear fusion facilities in future. A field experiment using heavy water (HDO) as a substitute for HTO was carried out in the summertime to investigate the re-emission process of HTO from soil to the atmosphere. In the experiment, the time variations of depth profiles of HDO concentrations in soil exposed to HDO vapour and soil mixed with HDO were measured during the re-emission process on the field. The HDO concentrations in soil water in top soil layers of both the exposed and mixed soil rapidly decreased with time during the re-emission. However, the decrease of exposed soil was much greater than that of mixed soil. The re-emission process was analysed using a model including the evaporation of HDO from soil, the exchange between soil HDO and air H2O, and the diffusion of HDO in soil. It was found that the model is applicable to calculating the time variations of detailed depth profiles of HDO concentration in soil water in surface soil layers, using an estimated exchange velocity.     

Soil migration and plant uptake of technetium from a fluctuating water table

Soil columns (50x15 cm) were used to determine the potential for 95mTc (as a surrogate for 99Tc which is an important component of some radioactive waste) to migrate from a contaminated, fluctuating water table, through sandy loam soil and into perennial ryegrass. Upward migration was significantly retarded with, generally, only the bottom few centimetres of soil becoming contaminated over the 6 months of the experiment. This is thought to have been due to the presence of anoxic conditions within the water table leading to the reduction of pertechnetate to Tc(IV) species which are relatively insoluble. However, some evidence of very slow upward migration over time was found. Only a small and inconsistent transfer of activity into the perennial ryegrass was observed. Whilst these observations would suggest that 99Tc is less important than radionuclides such as 129I and 36Cl in terms of the risk associated with radioactive waste disposal, the potential for a slow upward migration, and/or a pulse-release following the re-oxidation of reduced soil in which 99Tc has accumulated should not be overlooked.     

Study of the comparative dynamics of the incorporation of tissue free-water tritium (TFWT) in bulrushes (Typha latifolia) and carp (Cyprinus carpio) in the Almaraz nuclear power plant cooling reservoir

The Almaraz nuclear power plant (Spain) uses the water of Arrocampo reservoir for cooling, and consequently raises the radioactive levels of the aquatic ecosystem of this reservoir. From July 2002 to June 2005, monthly samples of surface water, bulrushes (Typha latifolia) and carp (Cyprinus carpio) were collected from this reservoir. They were analyzed to determine the temporal evolution of the levels of ³H in surface water and of its transfer from the surface water to free-water in the tissues (TFWT) of the aforementioned two organisms. The tritium levels in the surface water oscillate with a biannual period, with their values in the study period ranging between 53 and 433 Bq/L. The incorporation of tritium to bulrushes and carp was fairly similar, the respective mean concentration factors being 0.74 and 0.8 (unitless, as Bq/L tissue water per Bq/L reservoir water). The temporal evolution of the levels fairly closely followed that observed for the surface water tritium, although detailed analysis showed the dominant periodicity for the bulrushes to be annual. This difference reflects the influence on the incorporation of tritium to bulrushes of diverse environmental and metabolic factors, especially evapotranspiration and the seasonal growth of this plant.     

Assessment, validation and intercomparison of operational models for predicting tritium migration from routine discharges of nuclear power plants: the case of Loire River

During last decades, a number of projects have been launched to validate models for predicting the behaviour of radioactive substances in the environment. The project of the "Aquatic" working group of the project EMRAS (Environmental Modelling for Radiation Safety) organised by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was based on the validation and assessment of models for predicting the behaviour of radionuclides in the aquatic ecosystems. The present paper describes a blind test of models aimed at assessing the dispersion of tritium releases in the Loire River (France), on a large domain ( approximately 350km) and on a period of six months, by comparing the results obtained by operational-to-experimental values of tritium concentration at Angers, a city along the Loire River. The common conclusion is that the models used by the different participants namely 1D models and models based on a schematic hydraulic (box models) are reliable tools for tritium transport modelling. Nevertheless, the importance of proper and detailed hydrological data for the appropriate prediction of pollutant migration in water is demonstrated by the example provided during this study.     

Upward movement of plutonium to surface sediments during an 11-year field study

An 11-year lysimeter study was established to monitor the movement of Pu through vadose zone sediments. Sediment Pu concentrations as a function of depth indicated that some Pu moved upward from the buried source material. Subsequent numerical modeling suggested that the upward movement was largely the result of invading grasses taking up the Pu and translocating it upward. The objective of this study was to determine if the Pu of surface sediments originated from atmosphere fallout or from the buried lysimeter source material (weapons-grade Pu), providing additional evidence that plants were involved in the upward migration of Pu. The ²⁴⁰Pu/²³⁹Pu and ²⁴²Pu/²³⁹Pu atomic fraction ratios of the lysimeter surface sediments, as determined by Thermal Ionization Mass Spectroscopy (TIMS), were 0.063 and 0.00045, respectively; consistent with the signatures of the weapons-grade Pu. Our numerical simulations indicate that because plants create a large water flux, small concentrations over multiple years may result in a measurable accumulation of Pu on the ground surface. These results may have implications on the conceptual model for calculating risk associated with long-term stewardship and monitored natural attenuation management of Pu contaminated subsurface and surface sediments.     

土地利用变化情景下牧羊河水文响应研究

土地利用方式变化影响水量平衡各要素的分配,进而导致流域水源涵养能力发生变化。选用长江流域金沙江水系下段牧羊河小流域内及周边气象站气象资料,植被、土壤以及地形数据,构建了研究区SWAT水文模型,分析其在牧羊河适用性后,结合1986~2009年的土地利用以及设置的人类活动增强和生态环境改善的4种土地利用变化情景,用率定好的SWAT模型分析了土地利用变化下牧羊河水文响应。结果表明：径流依次按1986、2000、2009、1995年土地利用方式减小,而蒸散依次按2009、1986、2000、1995年土地利用方式减小,土地利用对径流和蒸散的影响在汛期大于非汛期,随着林地面积的增加径流将减小;将现有耕地变为林地或变为草地都有助于减少径流,从流域水源水量涵养角度出发,构建适宜的生态系统将有助于减少径流和蒸散,而增加入渗。这一结果为牧羊河水源涵养林建设提供科学依据     

A comparison of the soil migration and plant uptake of radioactive chlorine and iodine from contaminated groundwater

A 6-month soil column experiment was conducted to compare the upward migration and plant uptake of radiochlorine and radioiodine from shallow, near-surface contaminated water tables. Both fixed and fluctuating water tables were studied. After 6 months, (36)Cl activity concentrations were relatively uniform throughout the soil profile apart from an accumulation at the soil surface, which was especially marked under a fluctuating water table scenario. In contrast, (125)I (a surrogate for (129)I) tended to accumulate at the boundary between the anoxic conditions at the base of the column and the oxic conditions above, due to its redox-dependent sorption behaviour. The uptake of (36)Cl by perennial ryegrass was much greater than that of (125)I due to its greater migration into the rooting zone and its ready availability in soil solution. In the context of radioactive waste disposal, where these radionuclides may potentially be released into groundwater, (36)Cl would be expected to present a greater potential for contamination of the biosphere than (129)I.     

Modelling the spatio-temporal evolution of 3H in the waters of the River Tagus

Measurements of tritium specific activity levels and of temperatures in waters of the Torrejón-Tagus reservoir (Spain) showed that their radioactive characteristics were basically influenced by the radioactive liquid effluent from the Almaraz Nuclear Power Plant. This enters the Torrejón-Tagus reservoir via the Arrocampo cooling reservoir, which exchanges water with the first. We studied the temporal and spatial (in two dimensions) evolution of the mentioned parameters for years 1997 and 1998. The tritium levels were found to be significantly correlated with temperature. Two numerical models were constructed for a quantitative study of the tritium levels along Torrejón reservoir: a 1D model was used for the dispersion of tritium along the whole length of the reservoir, and a 2D depth-averaged model was used for a detailed study of the area where tritium is released into the reservoir. Both models solve the hydrodynamic equations, to obtain the currents induced by the exchanges of water between the reservoirs in the River Tagus and Arrocampo, and the advection/diffusion equation to calculate the dispersion of tritium. In general, the model results were in agreement with the experimental observations.     

Vertical migration of 60Co, 137Cs and 226Ra in agricultural soils as observed in lysimeters under crop rotation

In most studies quantifying the migration parameters - apparent migration velocity and apparent dispersion coefficient - of radionuclides in the soil by model calculations, these parameters are determined for undisturbed soils. For soils disturbed by ploughing, however, no such data are available in the literature. Therefore, in the present study, the migration parameters of (137)Cs, (60)Co and (226)Ra were estimated for ploughed soils by means of a convection-dispersion model. The depth distributions of the radionuclides were determined in four lysimeters (area: 1m(2), depth of soil monolith: 0.75m) filled with artificially contaminated soils of different types in July 1990. The lysimeters were cropped with agricultural plants. The soil in each lysimeter was ploughed manually once a year until 1996 (plough depth 20cm). In July 1999, soil samples were collected from three pits in each lysimeter. The depth distributions of all radionuclides proved to be very similar in each soil pit. The spatial variability of the depth distributions of a given radionuclide within the lysimeters was about the same as their variability between the four lysimeters. Evaluation of the migration parameters revealed that the convective transport of the radionuclides was always rather small or even zero, while the dispersive transport caused a "melting" process of the initially sharp activity edge at the lower border of the Ap horizon. These results are explained by the high evapotranspiration (80-90% of the total precipitation plus irrigation) and the small amounts of seepage water during the observation period of 9 years.     

基于高分一号影像的江汉平原表层土壤湿度指数反演研究

土壤湿度指数遥感监测在农业生产中具有重要的作用。为探讨国产高分一号（GF 1）遥感数据在江汉平原农情参数快速获取中的适用性,以潜江市2017年3月8日的GF 1 WFV影像和106个采样点的土壤湿度实测数据为数据源,选择垂直干旱指数（PDI）、改进型垂直干旱指数（MPDI）和植被调整垂直干旱指数（VAPDI）,对土壤湿度指数反演的效果进行比较和验证。研究结果表明：PDI、MPDI、VAPDI与土壤湿度实测含水量的决定系数分别达到0.649、0.802和0.821,实测土壤含水量验证精度评价也表明各模型均能满足反演的精度要求,说明基于GF 1 WFV影像开展江汉平原的大尺度土壤湿度反演是可行的;在植被覆盖中等区域,MPDI和VAPDI能够在一定程度上克服混合像元对土壤湿度光谱信息的影响,反演的精度要比PDI高,但在高植被覆盖度区,采用垂直植被指数（PVI）修正的VAPDI不易出现植被覆盖饱和现象,具有更高的反演精度;基于3种指数模型反演的土壤湿度指数空间异质性基本一致,但MPDI、VAPDI对土壤湿度变化更为敏感,能反映出不同植被覆盖类型下土壤湿度的实际水平。研究结果可为江汉平原大范围和动态监测表层土壤湿度指数提供理论基础和实践参考。 关键词： 高分一号;土壤湿度指数;PDI;MPDI;VAPDI;江汉平原     

Tritium in surface waters of the Yenisei River basin

This paper reports an investigation of the tritium content in the surface waters of the Yenisei River basin near the Mining and Chemical Combine (MCC). In 2001 the maximum tritium concentration in the Yenisei River did not exceed 4 +/- 1 Bq l(-1), which is consistent with the data of 1998-99. However, it has been found that there are surface waters containing enhanced tritium as compared with the background values for the Yenisei River. For instance, in the Ploskii Stream and the Shumikha River the maximum tritium concentrations amount to 168 and 81 Bq l(-1), respectively. The source of tritium in these surface waters is the last operating reactor at the MCC, which still uses the Yenisei water as coolant. In water and sediment samples of the Bolshaya Tel River (a tributary of the Yenisei River) the tritium content turned out to be at least 10 times higher than the background values for the Yenisei River. The measurements conducted at the RPA RADON (Moscow) revealed not only tritium but also the artificial radionuclide (14)C in the Bolshaya Tel samples. The data obtained suggest that the Bolshaya Tel River receives the major part of tritium from sediments rather than from the water catchment area. This allows the conclusion that there is water exchange between the surface waters and the radioactively contaminated underground horizons of the "Severny" testing site.     

Measured and modelled tritium concentrations in freshwater Barnes mussels (Elliptio complanata) exposed to an abrupt increase in ambient tritium levels

To improve understanding of environmental tritium behaviour, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) included a Tritium and C-14 Working Group (WG) in its EMRAS (Environmental Modelling for Radiation Safety) program. One scenario considered by the WG involved the prediction of time-dependent tritium concentrations in freshwater mussels that were subjected to an abrupt increase in ambient tritium levels. The experimental data used in the scenario were obtained from a study in which freshwater Barnes mussels (Elliptio complanata) were transplanted from an area with background tritium concentrations to a small Canadian Shield lake that contains elevated tritium. The mussels were then sampled over 88 days, and concentrations of free-water tritium (HTO) and organically-bound tritium (OBT) were measured in the soft tissues to follow the build-up of tritium in the mussels over time.The HTO concentration in the mussels reached steady state with the concentration in lake water within one or two hours. Most models predicted a longer time (up to a few days) to equilibrium. All models under-predicted the OBT concentration in the mussels one hour after transplantation, but over-predicted the rate of OBT formation over the next 24 h. Subsequent dynamics were not well modelled, although all participants predicted OBT concentrations that were within a factor of three of the observation at the end of the study period. The concentration at the final time point was over-predicted by all but one of the models. The relatively low observed concentration at this time was likely due to the loss of OBT by mussels during reproduction.     

Detection of tritium sorption on four soil materials

In order to measure groundwater age and design nuclear waste disposal sites, it is important to understand the sorption behavior of tritium on soils. In this study, batch tests were carried out using four soils from China: silty clays from An County and Jiangyou County in Sichuan Province, both of which could be considered candidate sites for Very Low Level Waste disposal; silty sand from Beijing; and loess from Yuci County in Shanxi Province, a typical Chinese loess region. The experimental results indicated that in these soil media, the distribution coefficient of tritium is slightly influenced by adsorption time, water/solid ratio, initial tritium specific activity, pH, and the content of humic and fulvic acids. The average distribution coefficient from all of these influencing factors was about 0.1-0.2 mL/g for the four types of soil samples. This relatively modest sorption of tritium in soils needs to be considered in fate and transport studies of tritium in the environment.     

Vegetation-permafrost relationships in the zone of sporadic permafrost distribution in the Kamchatka Peninsula

Studies on vegetation and permafrost table depth in the zone of sporadic permafrost distribution in the Uksichan River valley (the central Kamchatka Peninsula) have provided evidence that these components of biogeocenosis are interrelated and develop coordinately. In open larch forests with green forest mosses dominating in the ground vegetation layer, the permafrost table lies approximately 60 cm below the soil surface. When the ground vegetation layer is dominated by sphagnums, the permafrost table rises to 40–20 cm. In areas with a dwarf shrub-lichen ground layer, the soil thaw depth increases. A hypothesis is proposed that cyclic successional replacement of plant communities may take place in open larch forests on permafrost soils, including four consecutive stages with dominance of green mosses, sphagnums, lichens, and dwarf shrubs. In areas disturbed by fires, pioneer moss or herbaceous communities develop in the ground layer.     

雅砻江流域中上游径流变化归因分析

在全球气候不断变化和人类活动的影响下,开展河川径流变化的归因研究对水资源的合理利用和分配具有现实意义。以雅砻江流域雅江水文站以上区域作为研究区,采用线性分析、Mann-Kendall检验法和累积距平法等方法分析了研究区1961～2015年水文气候要素的变化特征,进而基于Budyko假设水热耦合平衡原理的弹性系数法估算了径流变化对各影响因子的弹性系数,并对研究区的径流变化进行归因分析。结果表明:近55年来,研究区年径流深整体呈上升趋势,上升速率为0.496 mm/a,并在1999年发生了由低到高的显著突变。年降水量和潜在蒸散量分别呈上升和下降趋势,变化率分别为0.994和-0.246 mm/a。降水、潜在蒸散发和下垫面弹性系数分别为1.40、-0.40和-0.83,说明年径流对降水量的变化最为敏感,其次是下垫面变化,对潜在蒸散量变化的敏感度最低。年径流对气候变化的敏感度呈微增强趋势,对下垫面变化的敏感度逐步减弱。气候变化是年径流增加的主要因素,总贡献率为60.66%,其中降水量和潜在蒸散量的贡献率分别占59.21%和1.45%,下垫面变化的贡献率为39.34%,反映下垫面变化的NDVI自1999年后呈下降趋势,是导致径流增加的重要原因。     

土地整治区典型林地土壤贮水量预测方法比较

在长期田间试验基础上,分别利用数值模拟方法（Numerical Simulation,NS）和人工神经网络（Artificial Neural Network,ANN）模型构建江南平原土地整治区典型林地的土壤水分运动模型,并对土壤贮水量进行预测。[JP2]NS模型校正结果表明,该模型虽能较好地预测林地土壤含水量动态变化,但是NS模型对训练期和验证期0~60 cm[JP]土层贮水量预测的均方根误差（Root Mean Square Error,RMSE）分别为1109和829 mm,而ANN预测的RMSE分别为417和408 mm,说明ANN的预测效果好于NS模型。最后,敏感性分析结果表明ANN预测精度对输入参数的敏感程度由高到低依次为：前期土壤贮水量>降水量>最高气温>最低气温