Energy inputs in agricultural systems of China

An analysis of the energy inputs in corn, rice, sorghum, wheat, soybean, and millet in northeastern China indicates that most of the crops are produced with about one half the fossil energy inputs compared with those in the United States. The inputs of labor, however, are 10–100-fold greater than those in the United States. China also uses 85 to more than 500 h of horse power per hectare in producing its crop and this helps reduce the fossil energy inputs in crop production. A small increase in the use of machinery energy (3%) at appropriate times in the cropping systems could reduce labor inputs by about one third.     

Decisions to reduce greenhouse gases from agriculture and product transport: LCA case study of organic and conventional wheat

A streamlined hybrid life cycle assessment is conducted to compare the global warming potential (GWP) and primary energy use of conventional and organic wheat production and delivery in the US. Impact differences from agricultural inputs, grain farming, and transport processes are estimated. The GWP of a 1 kg loaf of organic wheat bread is about 30 g CO₂-eq less than the conventional loaf. When organic wheat is shipped 420 km farther to market, organic and conventional wheat systems have similar impacts. These results can change dramatically depending on soil carbon accumulation and nitrous oxide emissions from the two systems. Key parameters and their variability are discussed to provide producers, wholesale and retail consumers, and policymakers metrics to align their decisions with low-carbon objectives.     

Comparison of soil N availability and leaching potential,crop yields and weeds in organic,low-input and conventional farming systems in northern California

Increasing dependence on off-farm inputs including, fertilizers, pesticides and energy for food and fiber production in the United States and elsewhere is of questionable sustainability resulting in environmental degradation and human health risks. The organic (no synthetic fertilizer or pesticide use), and low-input (reduced amount of synthetic fertilizer and pesticide use), farming systems are considered to be an alternative to conventional farming systems, to enhance agricultural sustainability and environmental quality. Soil N availability and leaching potential, crop yields and weeds are important factors related to agricultural sustainability and environmental quality, yet information on long-term farming system effects on these factors, especially in the organic and low-input farming systems is limited. Four farming systems: organic, low-input, conventional (synthetic fertilizer and pesticides applied at recommended rates) 4-year rotation (conv-4) and a conventional 2-year rotation (conv-2) were evaluated for soil mineral N, potentially mineralizable N (PMN), crop yields and weed biomass in irrigated processing tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) and corn (Zea mays L.) from 1994 to 1998 in California’s Sacramento Valley. Soil mineral N levels during the cropping season varied by crop, farming system, and the amount and source of N fertilization. The organic and low-input systems showed 112 and 36% greater PMN pools than the conventional systems, respectively. However, N mineralization rates of the conventional systems were 100% greater than in the organic and 28% greater than in the low-input system. Average tomato fruit yield for the 5-year period (1994–1998) was 71.0 Mg ha⁻¹ and average corn grain yield was 11.6 Mg ha⁻¹ and both were not significantly different among farming systems. The organic system had a greater aboveground weed biomass at harvest compared to other systems. The lower potential risk of N leaching from lower N mineralization rates in the organic and low-input farming systems appear to improve agricultural sustainability and environmental quality while maintaining similar crop yields.     

Cleaner production alternatives: Biomass utilisation options

The increasing price of energy, the security of supply, the reduction of green house gases, and the scarcity of oil and gas urge the use of more and more renewable energy. An important renewable energy source is the biomass which can be applied for heat, electricity, and transportation fuel production. The heat and electricity production are the so called “direct utilisation” alternatives and the transportation fuel production alternatives are the “indirect utilisation” alternatives of biomass energy. If efficient land use is considered, the alternatives can be compared on the basis of the utilisable energy produced from the biomass per hectare. It is shown that the bioethanol production from corn has about 89–99% less energy production capability than that of the direct utilisation alternatives. The cellulosic type bioethanol production technologies, since these partially directly utilise the biomass energy, have better energy utilisation potential, that is about 40–50% of direct alternatives.     

近年来北京市耕地多功能演变及其关联性

论文将北京市耕地作为一个整体,构建了北京市耕地多功能评价指标体系,基于2004-2011年统计数据,运用极差标准化法统一数据单位,分析了耕地多种功能的演变;运用改进的灰色T关联度分析了耕地各功能之间的关联性。结果表明：①2004-2011年北京市冬小麦、玉米和花卉生产功能显著增强,蔬菜和饲料生产功能显著减弱;生态环境功能用逆向指标表示且各指标变化不一,公路密度和农用塑料薄膜强度显著上升,农药强度波动下降,化肥强度波动上升。②耕地文化休闲功能显著增强;就业保障功能和生活保障功能显著减弱,粮食安全保障功能处于波动状态。③2004-2011年北京市耕地冬小麦生产功能和人均粮食保证率发展趋势最相近,其次为饲料生产功能与种植业从业人数比例。④农村劳动力机会成本越大,省工性作物可能具有更强的竞争力;耕地文化休闲功能和玉米生产功能越强,种植业从业人数比例越小;农民来自农业的收入比例越小,增产性投入越多。     

Influence of land use on organic carbon pool and chemical properties of Vertic Cambisols in central and southern Italy

Land use strongly influences soil properties and unsuitable practices lead to degradation of soil and environmental quality. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of different land uses on some chemical properties of soils developed from Pliocene clays, within hilly environments of central and southern Italy. The areas investigated are located in Vicarello di Volterra (Pisa, Tuscany), S. Quirico d’Orcia (Siena, Tuscany) and Soveria Simeri (Catanzaro, Calabria). Within each area different land uses were compared, including a natural ecosystem (Mediterranean bush), a perennial grass or pasture and an intensive crop (wheat, as monoculture or in rotation). The soils were sampled at 0.0–0.1, 0.1–0.2 and 0.2–0.4 m depth and analysed for particle size, pH, bulk density, cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations, total organic carbon (TOC) and humified carbon (HC) concentrations, organic carbon stock and total N. The stratification ratio of soil organic carbon was calculated to characterize soil organic carbon distribution with depth. At all sites, soil under Mediterranean bush contained the largest amounts of TOC (as both concentration and stock), HC, total N and exchangeable K, together with the highest cation exchange capacity and the lowest pH values. The decrease in soil OC stock with land use change from natural to agricultural ecosystem was 65–85% to 0.1 m depth, 55–82% to 0.2 m depth and 44–76% to 0.4 m depth, with the lowest decrements for perennial grass from S. Quirico and the highest decrement for continuous wheat from Soveria Simeri. Continuous wheat cropping, based on conventional tillage, proved to be the least sustainable land use. At Soveria Simeri, the organic carbon content under pasture was not significantly larger than under wheat cultivation, probably because of grazing mismanagement; however, organic carbon under pasture was more humified. At S. Quirico, the perennial grass resulted in a significant increase in soil organic carbon at the soil surface relative to the wheat cultivation, while at Vicarello no differences were observed between alfalfa/wheat rotation and perennial grass. Our results lead to the questioning of sustainability of intensive cereal farming and uncontrolled grazing in the considered environments, emphasizing the need for greater attention to conservative land managements.     

基于LMDI模型的中国粮食产量变化及作物构成分解研究

理清1980-2010 年间中国粮食产量变化的作物贡献及其主要贡献因子,为今后农业政策的调整提供决策依据。论文采用对数平均迪氏分解模型(LMDI)开展1980-2010 年间中国粮食产量变化及作物构成分解研究。研究结果表明:①30 a 间中国粮食产量增加了2.26×10⁸ t,粮食播种面积效应和粮食单产效应分别为-0.21×10⁸和2.47×10⁸ t;粮食单产水平提升对粮食增加量的贡献值大,但这一贡献效应的增加量在减弱。②稻谷、小麦和玉米三种作物产量在全国粮食总产量中的比例波动性上升;稻谷单产、小麦单产、玉米单产,以及玉米播种面积的增产效应最为明显,是驱动全国粮食产量增加的主要因素。③地区贡献以黑龙江和河南最为突出,累积贡献率约占1/3,省域粮食生产“北进中移”的趋势明显;各省域粮食产量的贡献因素差异显著,大豆、薯类和其他作物对粮食总产量变化的贡献较小。建议实施差别化的粮食生产政策,在继续提高粮食单产的同时稳定粮食播种面积,确保国家粮食安全。     

耕作历史和种植制度对绿洲农田土壤有机碳及其组分的影响

耕作历史和种植方式是影响黑河绿洲农田土壤总有机碳及其组成的重要因素。研究结果显示,随着耕作时间的延长,土壤总有机碳(TOC)、活性有机碳(AOC)、惰性有机碳(NOC)的含量均呈增加趋势,但AOC、NOC的增幅存在差异,AOC因性质活泼,对农业活动等措施引起的变化较NOC有较快响应,因此,在耕作的初期(0~5 a),AOC的增幅高于NOC,而20 a的耕地NOC增幅大于AOC,之后达到AOC与NOC的增幅接近(>100 a)的动态发展趋势,表明总有机碳含量积累的过程是AOC与NOC增幅逐渐接近、NOC积累增速的过程。>100 a的耕地,因种植方式不同,剖面上TOC、AOC、NOC含量呈现出:油菜地>普通玉米地>制种玉米地>小麦地。分析发现,绿洲区近年来大面积种植制种玉米引起TOC、AOC、NOC发生改变,增加秸秆或牲畜粪便的归还量是提高土壤有机碳的有效途径。     

黄淮平原不同多熟模式生产力特征与资源利用效率研究

对黄淮平原一麦三玉米、一麦二玉米和一麦一玉米三种多熟模式的产量、资源利用及经济效益状况进行了比较分析。结果表明，三种模式年亩产均超过吨粮，说明在集约栽培条件下黄淮平原亩产吨粮的现实性。三种模式产量梯度差异表明，在水肥供应基本充足的情况下，通过集约多熟种植并配合以合理调控技术是在高产基础上进一步提高产量的有效途径。一麦三玉米最高产量达２２０１ｔ／ｈｍ２（亩产１４６７ｋｇ），是在现有技术条件下接近与突破亩产吨半粮的有效种植模式之一。全年玉米总穗数增加是增产的关键。一麦三玉米模式通过接茬移栽等综合措施的有效配合，能维持较高的同化功能，光热资源利用效率提高。经济效益上表现为高投入高产出，但部分产投经济指标有下降的趋势。从综合考虑公顷产量与公顷纯收入及物质费用、用工等因素上综合评判，一麦三玉米模式总体上表现优势。     

黄淮平原不同多熟模式生产力特征与资源利用效率研究

对黄淮平原一麦三玉米、一麦二玉米和一麦一玉米三种多熟模式的产量、资源利用及经济效益状况进行了比较分析。结果表明，三种模式年亩产均超过吨粮，说明在集约栽培条件下黄淮平原亩产吨粮的现实性。三种模式产量梯度差异表明，在水肥供应基本充足的情况下，通过集约多熟种植并配合以合理调控技术是在高产基础上进一步提高产量的有效途径。一麦三玉米最高产量达２２０１ｔ／ｈm₂（亩产１４６７ｋｇ），是在现有技术条件下接近与突破亩产吨半粮的有效种植模式之一。全年玉米总穗数增加是增产的关键。一麦三玉米模式通过接茬移栽等综合措施的有效配合，能维持较高的同化功能，光热资源利用效率提高。经济效益上表现为高投入高产出，但部分产投经济指标有下降的趋势。从综合考虑公顷产量与公顷纯收入及物质费用、用工等因素上综合评判，一麦三玉米模式总体上表现优势。     

关中平原饲料作物生产的碳足迹及影响因素研究

畜牧业是主要的人为温室气体排放源,而饲料作物生产是畜牧业温室气体排放的主要来源之一.研究饲料作物生产的碳足迹及减排措施对于从日粮的角度减少畜牧业的温室气体排放至关重要.因此,本文应用生命周期评价理论和IPCC(2006)田间温室气体计算方法,建立了饲料作物碳足迹评估方法,分析了关中平原饲料作物的温室气体排放特点和减排措施及潜力.结果表明:关中平原主要饲料的碳足迹(以CO_2当量计)由大到小依次为玉米0.620、苜蓿0.382、小麦麸皮0.240、青饲玉米0.217、小麦秸秆0.083和玉米秸秆0.070 kg·kg~(-1);主要排放环节是化肥生产、氮肥田间排放和灌溉,对碳足迹的贡献率分别为26.0%~33.8%、27.8%~29.6%和24.5%~39.1%.由于关中平原存在过量施肥和大水漫灌的现象,通过化肥减施和节水灌溉措施减少饲料作物碳足迹的潜力很大,但不同措施带来的实际减排量仍需通过田间实践和具体技术的生命周期评价进行验证.     

中国粮食作物种植结构调整及其水土资源利用效应

粮食种植结构调整会影响农业资源的消耗需求。20世纪90年代中后期以来,玉米在我国粮食生产中的地位明显提升。以粮食种植结构无调整为参照情景,一定产量下,1996-2015年,在国家层面,因粮食种植结构调整对水土资源消耗的节省量约占现期需求量的4%左右。在区域层面,从结构调整对种植面积的减省效应看,耕地资源相对丰富的北方地区明显高于南方地区;从对水资源消耗的减省效应看,北方贫水区也普遍高于南方地区,干旱度最高的西北地区最高。期间区域分品种粮食生产广泛受到作物种植比例变化的影响。研究结果表明,要充分利用好南方水热资源,恢复水稻生产,主要取决于稻米需求及其种植效益,而北方地区则要尽可能按降水规律调整农作制度,合理控制水稻、小麦的种植面积。     

Mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions in European conventional and organic dairy farming

Dairy farming is the largest agricultural source of the greenhouse gases methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) in Europe. A whole-farm modeling approach was used to investigate promising mitigation measures. The effects of potential mitigation measures were modeled to obtain estimates of net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from representative dairy model farms in five European regions. The potential to reduce farm GHG emissions was calculated per kg milk to compare organic and conventional production systems and to investigate region and system specific differences. An optimized lifetime efficiency of dairy cows reduced GHG emissions by up to 13% compared to baseline model farms. The evaluation of frequent removal of manure from animal housing into outside covered storage reduced farm GHG emissions by up to 7.1%. Scraping of fouled surfaces per se was not an effective option since the reduction in GHG emissions from animal housing was more than out-weighed by increased emissions from the storage and after field application. Manure application by trail hose and injection, respectively, was found to reduce farm GHG emissions on average by 0.7 and 3.2% compared to broadcasting. The calculated model scenarios for anaerobic digestion demonstrated that biogas production could be a very efficient and cost-effective option to reduce GHG emissions. The efficiency of this mitigation measure depends on the amount and quality of organic matter used for co-digestion, and how much of the thermal energy produced is exploited. A reduction of GHG emissions by up to 96% was observed when all thermal energy produced was used to substitute fossil fuels. Potential measures and strategies were scaled up to the level of European regions to estimate their overall mitigation potential. The mitigation potential of different strategies based on a combination of measures ranged from −25 up to −105% compared to baseline model farms. A full implementation of the most effective strategy could result in a total GHG emission reduction of about 50 Mt of carbon dioxide (CO₂) equivalents per year for conventional dairy farms of EU(15) comparable to the defined model farms.     

Environmental assessment of organic soybean (Glycine max.) imported from China to Denmark: a case study

Growing global trade with organic products has increased the demand for environmental impact assessments during both production and transport. Environmental hotspots of organic soybeans produced in China and imported to Denmark were identified in a case study using a life cycle assessment approach. Furthermore, environmental impacts of organic and conventional soybeans at farm gate were compared in the case study. The total global warming potential (GWP) per ton organic soybeans imported to Denmark revealed that 51% came from transportation and 35% from the farm level. Comparing organic and conventional soybean at farm gate showed that GWP, non-renewable energy use, acidification and eutrophication was lower per ton organic soybeans, whereas land use was slightly higher.     

Energy flow through an organic agroecosystem in China

The energy flow in a traditional organic agroecosystem located in Hailun county of Northeastern China was analyzed for the years 1952–1954. For this energy analysis of the Hailun agroecosystem and human society, energy production was divided into 3 systems: crops, livestock and forestry.In terms of energy, this agroecosystem was self-sustaining. Human and horse power provided the major energy inputs. In the crop system, the energy input/output ratio was about 1:2. Fossil energy input into the total agroecosystem was less than 2% of the total. Based on only fossil energy inputs and crop outputs, the ratio was 1:107. The sources of food and household energy for human society came from the crop, livestock and forestry systems. The crop system provided more than 80% of the energy for this society.In addition to natural additions of N and P, legumes, other crop rotations and the application of human and livestock wastes to the land provided the nutrients for crop production. However, the agroecosystem was not self-sustaining in terms of some soil nutrients. Quantities of both nitrogen and phosphorus were calculated to be declining because of losses due to composting, storage, burning crop residues, exporting some harvests and soil erosion.     

水分调控下旱地土壤中毒死蜱的消解研究

为探讨水分调控下旱地土壤中毒死蜱的消解特性,通过盆栽试验及通径分析方法,研究了不同水分条件下旱地土壤中毒死蜱消解速率及其与土壤性质之间的关系.结果表明:①土壤中毒死蜱的消解速率随时间的延长而逐渐减缓,并且不同水分条件下土壤中毒死蜱的消解速率不同,施药45 d后,5个水分处理（20% FC、40% FC、60% FC、80% FC和100% FC,表示田间持水量依次为20%、40%、60%、80%和100%）下毒死蜱的消解率分别为65.58%~85.56%、70.71%~89.64%、76.30%~95.33%、72.53%~97.60%和70.57%~90.80%,其中以80% FC下的消解速率最快,60% FC下次之.②一级动力学方程能较好地描述土壤中毒死蜱的消解过程（R2>0.88）,消解速率常数（k）最大为0.099 0 d-1.③土壤中毒死蜱的消解速率与w（有机碳）、w（DOC）（DOC为可溶性有机碳）和w（MBC）（MBC为微生物量碳）均呈显著相关.通径分析结果显示,水分条件的改变致使土壤中w（有机碳）、w（DOC）和w（MBC）发生变化,进而对土壤中毒死蜱的消解速率产生较大影响.④大豆、玉米和小麦根际土壤中毒死蜱消解速率均快于非根际土壤,根际土壤中毒死蜱消解速率表现为大豆土壤（0.099 0 d-1）>玉米土壤（0.080 6 d-1）>小麦土壤（0.069 6 d-1）.研究显示,改变土壤水分含量可有效调节土壤中毒死蜱的消解,并为农业生产中毒死蜱的安全施用提供参考依据.      

旱作小麦─玉米垅种沟盖地膜带田集水调水与增产效应研究

旱作垅种（小麦）沟盖（玉米）地膜带田优于目前推广的沟种（小麦）垅盖（玉米）带田种植形式。在作物共生期相互调水作用更趋合理,平衡了小麦、玉米不同生育阶段对水分的供需矛盾,作物的生态条件更加适宜,群体结构更加协调,提高了作物的生产量,前者比后者增产９０％～１２５％。     

水解液出料和回流对秸秆水解产酸的影响

为了解秸秆两相发酵水解相水解液出料和回流对秸秆水解产酸过程的影响,以打捆麦秸为原料,在中温[(37±1)℃]条件下,采用批次进料方式,进行秸秆水解产酸实验.实验设置水解液出料量为排空、排1/2和排1/3,水解液回流频次为不回流、1d回流1次和3d回流1次.结果表明:水解液出料促进了秸秆有机物的水解溶出,水解液出料后秸秆中有机物大量水解溶出,水解液COD、SCOD浓度迅速回升,pH值迅速降低,TVFAs先增加后降低;水解液大出料量更有利于秸秆有机物水解溶出,水解液排空的处理累积COD获得量、TS损失率、半纤维素损失率和纤维素损失率较排1/3的处理分别提高44.45%、25.97%、30.23%和43.34%,排空的处理单位秸秆水解获得COD质量达0.33g COD/g秸秆;水解液回流对秸秆有机物水解溶出并未表现出明显的促进作用,但在实验后期对日产气量及产气中甲烷含量影响明显,3d回流1次的处理累积产气量和产气中甲烷含量均高于不回流和1d回流1次的处理.     

以10种农业废弃物为基料的地下水反硝化碳源属性的实验研究

为了选择理想的农业废弃物作为优质碳源,同时作为生物膜载体应用于可渗透反应墙(PRB),通过反硝化作用去除地下水中的硝酸盐.选择小麦秸秆、玉米秸秆、稻秆、大豆秸秆、玉米棒、稻壳、甘蔗渣、杨树枝、木屑、芦苇共10种农业废弃物进行元素分析实验、浸溶实验和长效浸出实验研究.元素分析实验结果显示,10种农业废弃物的C、N、H元素含量分别为38%~48%、5%~7%、0.5%~2.5%.短效浸出实验表明,甘蔗浸出液的总有机碳(TOC)浓度最高,均值可达38.66 mg·g~(-1),大豆秸秆、水稻秸秆、玉米秸秆、稻壳、杨树枝和小麦秸秆为8.04~15.30 mg·g~(-1),其他均值约为2.36~6.33 mg·g~(-1).但是,大部分农业废弃物均释放一定量的含氮物质.其中,硝酸盐及亚硝酸盐释放量均低于0.05 mg·g~(-1),氨氮释放量低于0.30 mg·g~(-1),凯氏氮除木屑、玉米棒、杨树枝释放量较低,其余均高于0.80 mg·g~(-1),最高可达1.65 mg·g~(-1).同时,秸秆类材料浸出液具有一定的色度,其中稻杆的色度最高,其值为1025.选择浸出液TOC浓度较高的甘蔗渣、玉米秸秆、稻壳、小麦秸秆及凯氏氮浓度较低的玉米棒和木屑作为理想碳源材料,进行长效浸出实验.结果表明,6种材料的TOC能迅速达到高位平衡状态,且溶出速率稳定,浸出液的高效液相色谱(HPLC)和气-质谱联用仪(GC/MS)分析表明,其主要成分为有机酸、糖类、含氮有机物和酯类等物质.其中,有机酸主要为甲酸、乙酸、草酸、富马酸等小分子有机酸、糖类主要为纤维二糖、葡萄糖、果糖和木糖.脱氮效能实验表明,6种农业废弃物硝酸盐去除率均达到80%以上,脱氮速率均达到1.00~2.00 mg·cm~(-3)·d~(-1)(以N计).综上,这6种材料均可作为地下水硝酸盐污染原位修复的理想碳源填充材料.     

中国粮食生产区域集中化的演化趋势

农业生产的区域专业化与地域分工是农业现代化的一个重要标志,也是未来中国农业发展的必由之路。受农业生产市场化程度以及耕地保护、农业补贴、价格保护等政策因素的影响,中国目前区域专业化的方向和地域分工取向尚不清晰,不过农产品生产的集中化趋势却为回答这一问题提供了重要线索。论文以稻谷、小麦和玉米3种主要粮食作物为研究对象,利用省域单元1981—2013年的产量数据,运用集中化指数方法揭示1980年以来中国粮食生产区域集中化程度的演变特征和演化趋势。结果表明：中国粮食生产的集中化程度明显上升,3种粮食作物中小麦生产的集中化程度最高,并呈相对稳定的集中化趋势,而稻谷和玉米生产的集中化程度则经历了一个“U”型变化过程,意味着稻谷和玉米生产在这一阶段发生了空间重组;依据集中化趋势,稻谷生产向黑龙江、湖南、江西等地集中,小麦生产向河南、山东、安徽等传统小麦产区集中,玉米生产则向黑龙江、内蒙古等地集中,预示未来极有可能在这些地区及其周边形成专业化粮食产区。加强这些地区的农田基本建设将有助于推进中国粮食生产的地区专业化与地域分工。