中国潜在增长率的估算：人力资本变化的视角

中国经济从高速增长向高质量增长转换之际,增长动力也发生了变化,未来中国经济潜在增速如何演变是一个值得研究的话题。遵循内生经济增长理论中人力资本是长期经济增长的重要因素,文章构建了一个包含人力资本的增长核算方程,考虑了人力资本对潜在经济增长的影响,在生产函数中引入人力资本,运用生产函数法估算未来中国潜在经济增长率,文中考虑了三种数据来测算人力资本,除了传统的人力资本测算方法,考虑到人力资本投资的非线性和投入时间,采用大量调查问卷得来的公民科学素质作为人力资本的一个衡量指标。研究表明,在这三种情况下,C-D型生产函数中资本的产出弹性分别为0.63、0.59和0.57,这一结果与过去三十多年国民收入分配中资本的收入分配比例相近。在此基础上,结合长期经济增长潜力和短期经济波动,分别对人力资本、物质资本和技术进步进行了预测,并预测了2018—2035年中国经济的平均潜在增长率区间为5.02%～5.25%,其中2018—2025年期间为5.72%～5.91%,2026—2030年期间为4.69%～4.96%,2031—2035年期间为4.22%～4.50%。可以看出,随着物质资本投资增速和收益率不断下降,中国潜在经济增长率未来将不断下降,但由于人力资本积累的不断增加,将减缓这一下降趋势。在中国经济减速成为新常态的情形下,长期内政策考虑到对人力资本的长期持续投资,财政上加大对基础教育以及学前教育的投资,税收上鼓励对人力资本投资的税收减免;短期内政府继续实行积极的需求管理,重视投资结构的优化,加大政府对于经济周期的调节,防止经济剧烈波动,未来十五年中国还会平均保持一个5%以上的中速增长。     

亲贫式增长刍议:论少数民族地区的扶贫政策取向

考察了经济增长和扶贫政策之间的跨国证据,突出了区域差异和国家经验这两个层面上形成的促进共同发展的多样性。对亲贫式增长的定义表明经济增长和扶贫这两个发展战略之间可能存在一种权衡问题。跨国证据表明,平均收入增长率和低收入者的收入增长率之间关系的巨大差异性,使得扶贫战略完全基于经济增长政策的论断存在争议。持续的快速增长显然有益于贫困人口,但是,如果整体的快速经济增长伴随着收入分配的缓慢恶化,这对贫困人口的福利比对经济增长影响更大。如果一国总体处于低增长环境,那么经济增长将难以获得贫困人口的支持。同时面向经济增长和旨在明确经济增长所带来的好处的混合策略被证明在实现持续减贫中可能是最为成功的。研究认为,在中国长期高速经济增长的支撑下,少数民族地区在收入改善和贫困人口数量显著减少方面取得了另世人瞩目的成就,为促进经济增长的倡导者和干预式扶贫的拥护者提供了实践支持。然而,普适的经济增长有利于贫困人口,但不会以相同的程度发生在少数民族地区。显然,一项公共政策更关注经济增长是必要的,但也同时必须关注经济增长所带来的收益是否会反映在提供贫困人口收入和贫困人口不可能轻易放弃的福祉上。针对于少数民族地区最有效的发展政策,是那些主张共同发展和利用公共政策创造增长的战略,同时还有利于贫困人口的共同参与,以确保他们成为积极的参与者和增长的受益者。自然资源收益管理,原生态农产品开发和区域经济带建设被列为促进这种增长战略实施的三个最有前途的领域。     

中国农户收入最大化与耕地保护行为研究

与西方农业家庭模型研究假设不同,经济结构转型期,我国农户将面临更大的空间和更多的自由配置资源以实现收入最大化.以劳动力配置为基础的投入最大化条件证明在农产品价格和政府补贴效应影响下,农业经营与外出务工劳动力投入的边际收入贡献相等时,农户能够实现收入最大化.在实现收入最大化过程中,农户耕地保护行为是否发生关键在于耕地保护劳动投入是否能得到补偿,充分分享耕地保护收益是农户层次耕地保护行为发生的基础条件.而流转条件下的农户农业经营劳动力投入和耕地数量变化之间的比较静态分析则进一步说明农户耕地保护行为发生的复杂性,国家层面应充分考虑耕地流转过程中农户资源禀赋变化趋势及行为选择,调整和完善耕地流转政策.     

中国农村劳动力转移对经济增长贡献的量化研究

本文探究了1991-2011年间我国农村劳动力非农转移的总体规模及产业流向,并定量分析了其对经济增长的贡献。在过去的二十年间,我国农村劳动力非农转移规模从1990年的8673万人增长到2011年的2.5亿多人,其中有53.7%流入第二产业,其余流入第三产业。本文采用历史增长核算法,将经济增长分解为三个贡献要素,即劳动年龄人口规模的增长、劳动生产率的增长及劳动力利用效率的增长。本文计算了1991-2011年各要素的实际年平均增长率及其对经济增长的贡献,然后计算在没有农村非农劳动力转移的假设条件下各要素及经济增长的变化,最后比较二者的差异,即可得到农村非农劳动力转移对经济增长的贡献。研究结果表明,1991-2011年间,这三个经济增长贡献要素的实际年平均增长率分别为1.3%,9.3%及-0.3%,年平均对GDP增长的实际贡献分别为12.2%,90.2%和-2.4%。在没有农村非农劳动力转移的假设条件下,劳动生产率及劳动力利用效率的年平均增长率分别下降至8.9%和-1.4%,而GDP年平均增长率也将从实际的10.3%下降到8.8%。进一步的比较分析表明,持续的农村劳动力的非农转移在20年间使劳动力利用效率年平均提升30.7%,使总劳动生产率年平均提升23.9%,年平均提升比例为63.7%,使GDP年增长率平均提升近1.6个百分点。可见,农村劳动力的非农转移一方面通过对剩余劳动力的利用,提升了劳动力的利用效率,为潜在人口红利提供了实现通道,另一方面通过提升劳动力的产业结构,提升了总体劳动生产率水平,是我国过去并也将是未来经济发展的重要驱动要素。     

中国省域R&D投入的区域差异及时空格局演变

以中国31个省市自治区为研究单元,以RD强度为测度指标,采用传统统计分析方法,结合马尔可夫链和ESDA,分析了2001~2011年中国RD投入的区域差异及时空格局演变。结果表明:中国省域RD投入的绝对差距在扩大而相对差距在缩小,空间相关性逐渐增强,存在明显的"俱乐部趋同"现象。东西部之间RD投入的空间差异有所扩大并呈两极分化的态势,投入重心正在向东南部偏移。RD投入增长也具有明显的空间集聚特征,并形成了以长三角和鲁皖赣为核心向中西部地区梯度推进的圈层结构。增长热点区由分散格局转为集中连片格局,增长冷点区在大幅减少,全部集中在西部地区。RD投入时空差异的形成受经济发展水平、政府科技投入力度、产业结构的变化和人力资本积累等多个因素的影响。     

人力资本积累与地区经济增长的联动关系分析

人力资本积累与地区经济增长差距的关系问题,是国内外理论界关注的焦点之一.为什么中国的地区经济增长在经济转型期20世纪80年代呈现收敛而90年代后发散?人力资本究竟是怎样作用于经济增长的?已有的经验研究没有考虑人力资本积累自身的收敛性,因而没有考虑到人力资本积累与地区经济增长的联立互动关系.本文采用三阶段最小二乘法(3SLS)估计了中国地区经济增长与人力资本增长的联立模型,结果表明,人力资本积累存在自身收敛性,人力资本增长率与地区经济增长率存在同向变化特征;同时,人力资本水平对地区经济增长存在直接发散和间接收敛双重效应,欠发达地区较高的人力资本增长率是导致20世纪80年代地区经济增长收敛的一个重要因素.因此,加大欠发达地区的人力资本投入,促进人力资本积累,对于缩小地区间经济增长差异具有十分重要的意义.     

环保投资与宏观经济关联分析

环境保护投资是开展环境保护工作的基础.近年来,环保投资总量不断增大,但总体而言缺乏硬性投资渠道,环保投资难以与经济增长同步.基于环保投资与经济增长关联性与环保投资弹性系数两个方面,本文分析了环保投资随经济增长的关系,分析结果表明:环保投资增长率与经济增长率缺乏关联性;从长期而言,与财政收入增长率存在长期均衡关系,且两者间存在单项因果关系;环保投资弹性系数波动较大,近年来整体呈现下降的趋势,环保投资相对于经济增速有所放缓,未能实现环保投资与经济发展的同步增长;环保投资增长率长期滞后于固定资产投资,环境污染治理的压力日趋升高;环保投资缺乏随经济增长的内生增长机制.基于此,为保持环保投资逐年稳定增长,实现环保投入增长幅度高于经济增长速度要求,本文从建立环保投资随经济增长的内生增长机制、拓宽环保投资渠道、完善优惠政策措施等方面提出了具体的建议.     

基于STIRPAT和GM(1,1)模型的湖南省农地投入碳排放增长机理及趋势预测

探索农地投入的碳排放特征、增长机理及趋势预测,并提出减排对策对农业发展向低碳绿色转型具有重要意义。研究采用回归分析法、STIRPAT和GM(1,1)模型解析湖南省农地投入碳排放增长机理并做出趋势预测。结果表明:2000~2014年湖南省农地投入碳排放量呈上升趋势,年均增长率为3.25%,各类碳源中化肥累计的碳排放量最大,其次是农药;此外翻耕、农药、农膜、柴油、灌溉、化肥累计碳排放年均增长量分别为0.68%、3.22%、7.47%、6.42%、2.57%、3.25%。农业人口、人均农业GDP、机械化水平、农业生产效率、农业产业结构显著影响农地碳排放,各因素每发生1%的变动会相应带来农地碳排放量约0.20%、0.95%、0.12%、0.98%和0.93%的变化。通过GM(1,1)模型对2016~2020年湖南省农地投入碳排放量进行预测,碳排放量呈持续上升趋势,2020年预计达到430.43万t。最后根据研究结果提出促进农地投入碳减排的政策建议。     

我国自然保护区建设中的环境剥夺问题

近年来我国各地大量增长的自然保护区实质上是一种环境剥夺现象。受环境考核体系与推行可持续发展战略需要．加大自然保护区建设力度是地方政府能够采取的比较成熟的环境保护手段。但是．通过博弈模型，可以推导出．受地方财政刚性预算约束．政府在地方自然保护区建设与管理中不能对环境区原有居民落实各项补偿．也难以投入必需的保护性管理费用。于是．在自然保护区管理中．保护区居民与管理机构之间博弈形成的纳什均衡是：居民违反有关规定，尽可能延续以往开发利用环境资源的经济活动。以抗衡自然保护区建设对他们“靠山吃山、靠水吃水”经济模式的压制；管理机构则实施开发性管理，以求自身努力。增加经济收入以保障自然保护区各项基础研究和管理活动。由于经营活动迎合了增加地方财政收入的地方政府经济发展目标。因此。在目前的自然保护区建设中普遍存在各种形式的开发性经营管理活动。但是．由于一些制度缺陷．在这种开发性管理战略中，一些环境区变相为政府权力支配下的环境资源．并借用可持续开发管理名义进一步转变成为某些地方机构与组织的私有环境资产。其后果是使自然保护区制度偏离了政策目标，也使环境区居民丧失了传统的环境支撑作用。对此论点．研究通过对近十年地方自然保护区建设数量的情况分析予以了经验验证。     

工业用地出让、引资质量底线竞争与环境污染——基于252个地级市面板数据的经验分析

在工业化进程中,中国地方政府利用其掌控的土地资源进行大规模的招商引资活动,其中工业用地出让成为其招商引资的法宝。为了在激烈的竞争中获得某些优势,它们有时甚至不惜降低引资质量底线,从而引来一些高污染、高能耗的工业企业,并带来日益严重的环境污染问题。论文利用工业用地协议出让把工业用地出让、引资质量底线竞争与环境污染三者联系起来,并运用2004—2013年全国252个地级市的土地出让数据、经济数据、环境数据来分析工业用地出让对中国经济和环境的影响。通过协议出让面积对固定资产投资、工业总产值、GDP和地方财政收入进行回归来分析采用协议出让方式引入投资项目的质量;通过协议出让面积对工业二氧化硫和工业废水排放量进行回归来分析协议出让方式对当地环境污染的影响。实证结果表明,当期及前期的工业用地协议出让面积与固定资产投资、工业总产值、GDP、地方财政收入、税收等均呈负相关关系,与当地污染物的排放量呈正相关关系。换言之,地方政府若试图用协议出让方式增加工业用地出让面积来促进地方经济增长,将得不偿失,在短期内虽然对地方经济有一定的促进作用,但在长期内会对地方经济和环境造成危害。为了实现经济和生态环境的可持续发展,应完善地方政府的考核方式,调整以GDP为主的政绩考核机制,综合当地环境状况和除经济增长外的其他社会性服务指标作为考核指标;中央政府应该加强对地方政府的监管,严格规范工业用地出让,优化土地资源配置,提升引资质量;地方政府应加强对当地企业的监管,并严格执行环保标准。     

WSSD 2002, Latin America and Brazil: Biodiversity and Indigenous People

Latin America comprehends notable variations in terms of natural environment, availability of natural resources, living standards, and demographic patterns. Latin America is a mosaic of cultures, post- and pre-Columbian. The rich variety of life forms discovered and described by chroniclers and traveling naturalists in the Neotropics contributed to the proposal, in mid-XVIIIth century, of a new system of classification and a scientific code of nomenclature for all organisms. Biodiversity was, for many centuries, a source of resources to be exploited in natura. In scientific circles, its inventory became the domain of taxonomists. But modern technology showed how important the miriad of life forms really are as sources of chemical molecules to be engineered as drugs and reassembled as novel manufactured products. We are on the brink of a new agricultural and medical revolution, thanks to the techniques of genetic engineering, which will lead eventually to the elimination of hunger and malnutrition.In this essay, the Brazilian environmental and social heterogeneity will serve as an example to illustrate some key points, which have influenced sustainability policies. The Amazon deforestation and indigenous knowledge (IK), subjects often associated with areas of high biodiversity, are usually the focus of environmental debates. The importance of IK in integrating development, reducing poverty and sustainability are considered together with the intellectual property rights of native populations.In the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) Implementation Plan, a few paragraphs were dedicated to Latin America, because of the pre-existing Action Platform on the Road to Johannesburg 2002, approved in Rio de Janeiro in October 2001. This paper calls attention to the need to draw up specific environmental policies for a region which shows an extremely high cultural and biological diversity, associated with a high availability of forests and water, among other resources.     

Latitudinal variation in size of freshwater pulmonate mollusks (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Pulmonata) in Western Siberia

The size of shells in some freshwater pulmonate mollusk species abundant in Western Siberia (Lymnaea fragilis, L. terebra, Planorbis planorbis, and Anisus leucostoma) is relatively large in the south and decreases in the north. It is supposed that this phenomenon is explained by the fact that the season with conditions allowing the growth of mollusks is shorter in the north than in the south of Western Siberia.     

湘鄂赣农业资源与专业化区域化方向

湘鄂赣地理位置优越,农业资源丰富,稻谷、茶叶、麻类、棉花、油料、柑桔和淡水产品、禽蛋、肉类等在我国居有重要的地位,因此,大力发展三省农业生产,对我国人民实现小康生活具有战略意义。今后,要加速专业化区域化进程。我们找出生产潜力所在:改造低产田、低产园、低产水面;开发“三高”技术;开垦荒地、荒山、荒水;适当提高复种指数。通过建设,三省主要农产品将自给有余,还可满足国内外市场的需要。努力方向:高效农业开发——综合农业开发,吨粮田开发,玉米带开发,饲料稻开发,山区开发;合理布局农业生产;深化农业商品基地建设,发展综合利用,搞活商品流通;全面提高农业现代化水平,加强农业社会服务体系。     

Ethnosciences––A step towards the integration of scientific and indigenous forms of knowledge in the management of natural resources for the future

Integration of indigenous knowledge and ethnoscientific approaches into contemporary frameworks for conservation and sustainable management of natural resources will become increasingly important in policies on an international and national level, both in countries that are industrialised and those that have a developing status. We set the scene on how this can be done by exploring the key conditions and dimensions of a dialogue between ȁ8ontologiesȁ9 and the roles, which ethnosciences could play in this process. First, the roles of ethnosciences in the context of sustainable development were analysed, placing emphasis on the implications arising when western sciences aspire to relate to indigenous forms of␣knowledge. Secondly, the contributions of ethnosciences to such an ȁ8inter- ontological dialogueȁ9 were explored, based on an ethnoecological study of the encounter of sciences and indigenous knowledge in the Andes of Bolivia, and reviewed experiences from mangrove systems in Kenya, India and Sri Lanka, and from case-studies in other ecosystems world-wide, incl. Australia, Burkina Faso, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Indonesia, Nepal, Niger, Philippines, Senegal, South-Africa and Tanzania.     

Paradoxical ozone associations could be due to methyl nitrite from combustion of methyl ethers or esters in engine fuels

We review studies of the effects of low ambient ozone concentrations on morbidity that found a negative coefficient for ozone concentration. We call this a Paradoxical Ozone Association (POA). All studies were in regions with methyl ether in gasoline. All but one study carefully controlled for the effects of other criterion pollutants, so the phenomenon cannot be attributed to them. One was in southern California in mid-summer when ozone levels are highest. Because ozone is created by sunlight, the most plausible explanation for a POA would be an ambient pollutant that is rapidly destroyed by sunlight, such as methyl nitrite (MN). A previously published model of engine exhaust chemistry suggested methyl ether in the fuel will create MN in the exhaust. MN is known to be highly toxic, and closely related alkyl nitrites are known to induce respiratory sensitivity in humans. Support for the interpretation comes from many studies, including three linking asthma symptoms to methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) and the observation that a POA has not been seen in regions without ether in gasoline. We also note that studies in southern California show a historical trend from more significant to less significant ozone-health associations. The timing of those changes is consistent with the known timing of the introduction of gasoline oxygenated with MTBE in that region.     

Household water in rural asia: a case study of the construction of a piped water system in Bangui,Ilocos Norte,Philippines

In early 1980 an extension agent was assigned to the rural municipality of Bangui, Ilocos Norte, Philippines to work on development projects – in particular the improvement of the supply of safe water for drinking and sanitation. After many months of visiting spring sites and meeting with community leaders, a small part of the municipality was selected to build a gravity fed piped water system. Although the system took many months to plan, identify funding and construct, the 600 community members were ultimately rewarded with house to house connections that enabled them to achieve per capita water consumption levels above the minimum levels recommended by the World Health Organization. Of course, money was critical to ensure the project’s success, but many other factors played an equally critical role. For instance, without the active participation of the community and the unwavering support of the community leadership the project would not have survived the initial planning stage. Also, the extension agent played a critical role by acting as a conduit between funding agencies, the Bureau of Public Works and the community. The primary lesson to be learned from this experience is that the success of rural development projects is largely driven by the synergy between the community, technical support, financial support, and agents of change such as extension agents. If any of these ingredients had been lacking, the project result would likely have been far different.     

Prognosis of the spatiotemporal dynamics of ecosystems by means of universal kriging

The use of quantitative data for constructing prognostic maps of the dynamics of ecosystem degradation and restoration by nonlinear simulation methods is a topical field of landscape ecology. This method of dynamic cartography is based on fiberwise comparison of data on the state of Chernye Zemli (the Kalmyk Republic, Russia) in different years and the detailed analysis of the period on which the prognosis was based. For this purpose, materials of repeated aerial and satellite photography obtained during a long period (1954–1993) were used. Comparison of maps characterizing the dynamics of Chernye Zemli between 1958 and 1993 allows prognostic electronic maps for the next 10–15 years (with a five-year interval) to be drawn and land prognosis for the next 20–30 years (1998–2023) to be obtained. Deceased     

Distributions of personal VOC exposures: a population-based analysis

Information regarding the distribution of volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations and exposures is scarce, and there have been few, if any, studies using population-based samples from which representative estimates can be derived. This study characterizes distributions of personal exposures to ten different VOCs in the U.S. measured in the 1999-2000 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Personal VOC exposures were collected for 669 individuals over 2-3 days, and measurements were weighted to derive national-level statistics. Four common exposure sources were identified using factor analyses: gasoline vapor and vehicle exhaust, methyl tert-butyl ether (MBTE) as a gasoline additive, tap water disinfection products, and household cleaning products. Benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, xylenes chloroform, and tetrachloroethene were fit to log-normal distributions with reasonably good agreement to observations. 1,4-Dichlorobenzene and trichloroethene were fit to Pareto distributions, and MTBE to Weibull distribution, but agreement was poor. However, distributions that attempt to match all of the VOC exposure data can lead to incorrect conclusions regarding the level and frequency of the higher exposures. Maximum Gumbel distributions gave generally good fits to extrema, however, they could not fully represent the highest exposures of the NHANES measurements. The analysis suggests that complete models for the distribution of VOC exposures require an approach that combines standard and extreme value distributions, and that carefully identifies outliers. This is the first study to provide national-level and representative statistics regarding the VOC exposures, and its results have important implications for risk assessment and probabilistic analyses.     

A general approach to transform a lake model for one radionuclide (radiocesium) to another (radiostrontium) and critical model tests using data for four Ural lakes contaminated by the fallout from the Kyshtym accident in 1957

This paper presents results of a model test carried out within the framework of the COMETES project (EU). The aim of the work was to change the structure of the MOIRA lake model for radiocesium so that it can be applied more generally for, in principle, all types of radionuclides and heavy metals. This general lake model is used within the MOIRA decision support system (DSS; MOIRA and COMETES are acronyms for EU-projects). The model is based on a set of differential equations and a specific modelling structure. It incorporates all important fluxes to, from and within lakes in a general manner. Yet the model is driven by a minimum of variables accessible from standard maps and monitoring programs. The model can be separated into two parts, a general part with equations applicable for all types of water pollutants and a substance-specific part. This model has previously been validated for 137Cs from many lakes covering a wide domain and yielded excellent predictive power. The alterations discussed in this work are meant to be general and radiostrontium is used as a typical element. Radiostrontium is known to be more mobile than radiocesium and all abiotic parts of the model handling fixation and mobility have been altered. The new model for 90Sr has been critically tested using data from four lakes heavily contaminated with 90Sr from the Kyshtym accident in the Southern Urals, Russia, using empirical data from a period from 1958 to 1995 for 90Sr in fish (here goldfish), water and sediments.