A comparison of general aviation accidents involving airline pilots and instrument-rated private pilots

Introduction: The extremely low accident rate for U.S air carriers relative to that of general aviation (∼1 and ∼60/million flight hours respectively) partly reflects advanced airman certification, more demanding recurrency training and stringent operational regulations. However, whether such skillset/training/regulations translate into improved safety for airline pilots operating in the general aviation environment is unknown and the aim of this study. Methods: Accidents (1998–2017) involving airline pilots and instrument-rated private pilots (PPL-IFR) operating non-revenue light aircraft were identified from the NTSB accident database. An online survey informed general aviation flight exposure for both pilot cohorts. Statistics used proportion testing and Mann-Whitney U tests. Results: In degraded visibility, 0 and 40% (χ² p = 0.043) of fatal accidents involving airline and PPL-IFR airmen were due to in-flight loss-of-control, respectively. For landing accidents, airline pilots were under-represented for mishaps related to airspeed mismanagement (p = 0.036) relative to PPL-IFR but showed a dis-proportionate count (2X) of ground loss-of-directional control accidents (p = 0.009) the latter likely reflecting a preference for tail-wheel aircraft. The proportion of FAA rule violation-related mishaps by airline pilots was >2X (7 vs. 3%) that for PPL-IFR airmen. Moreover, airline pilots showed a disproportionate (χ² p = 0.021) count of flights below legal minimum altitudes. Not performing an official preflight weather briefing or intentionally operating in instrument conditions without an IFR flight plan represented 43% of airline pilot accidents involving FAA rule infractions. Conclusions: These findings inform safety deficiencies for: (a) airline pilots, landing/ground operations in tail-wheel aircraft and lack of 14CFR 91 familiarization regulations regarding minimum operating altitudes and (b) PPL-IFR airmen in-flight loss-of-control and poor landing speed management. Practical Applications: For PPL-IFR airmen, training/recurrency should focus on unusual attitude recovery and managing approach speeds. Airline pilots should seek additional instructional time regarding landing tail-wheel aircraft and become familiar with 14CFR 91 rules covering minimum altitudes.     

An analysis of human factors in fifty controlled flight into terrain aviation accidents from 2007 to 2017

Introduction: Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) account for a considerable amount of fatalities when compared to other accident categories. Human factors are deemed significant contributory causes in these accidents. This paper aims to identify the human factors involved with aviation accidents that resulted in CFIT. Method: The study used the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) framework to determine the factors involved in 50 CFIT accidents from 24 counties over a 10 year period, i.e. 2007–2017. Interviews with five senior aviation safety experts were used to provide a better comprehension of the human factors affecting the flight safety. Results: The study identified 1289 individual causal and contributory human factors with unsafe actions and preconditions for unsafe actions being the main subcategories of the accidents. The study found that CFIT occur across a range of pilot experience and 44% of accidents occurred in cruise flight. Distraction, complacency and fatigue are all elements that flight crews may experience as contributors to CFIT during cruising. Conclusions: Human factors represent a major component of CFIT accidents. The analysis revealed a similar pattern of contributory and causal human factors across the various flight categories, with some noteworthy isolated variations. The prevalent factors were decision and skill-based errors along with communication, coordination and planning issues. Practical applications: Provision of specific CFIT awareness, pilot training focusing on improved decision-making and revision of basic flight skills, development of specific Global Positioning System routes for transiting high terrain areas are necessary to prevent CFIT accidents. Installation of Terrain Avoidance and Warning System and Ground Proximity Warning System and appropriate equipment training, specific CFIT Crew Resource Management training and improvement of organizational knowledge on the elements involved in CFIT are also recommended.     

Safety in the mining industry and the unfinished legacy of mining accidents: Safety levers and defense-in-depth for addressing mining hazards

Mining remains one of the most hazardous occupations worldwide and underground coal mines are especially notorious for their high accident rates. In this work, we provide an overview of the broad and multi-faceted topic of safety in the mining industry. After reviewing some statistics of mining accidents in the United States, we focus on one pervasive and deadly failure mode in mines, namely explosions. The repeated occurrence of mine explosions, often in similar manner, is the loud unfinished legacy of mining accidents and their occurrence in the 21st century is inexcusable and should constitute a strong call for action for all stakeholders in this industry to settle this problem. We analyze one such recent mine disaster in which deficiencies in various safety barriers failed to prevent the accident initiating event from occurring, then subsequent lines of defense failed to block this accident scenario from unfolding and to mitigate its consequences. We identify the technical, organizational, and regulatory deficiencies that failed to prevent the escalation of the mine hazards into an accident, and the accident into a “disaster”. This case study provides an opportunity to illustrate several concepts that help describe the phenomenology of accidents, such as initiating events, precursor or lead indicator, and accident pathogen. Next, we introduce the safety principle of defense-in-depth, which is the basis for regulations and risk-informed decisions by the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and we examine its relevance and applicability to the mining system in support of accident prevention and coordinating actions on all the safety levers, technical, organizational, and regulatory to improve mining safety. The mining system includes the physical confines and characteristics of the mine, the equipment in the mine, the individuals and the organization that operate the mine, as well as the processes and regulatory constraints under which the mine operates. We conclude this article with the proposition for the establishment of defense-in-depth as the guiding safety principle for the mining industry and we indicate possible benefits for adopting this structured hazard-centric system approach to mining safety.     

Safety culture aboard fishing vessels

Safety at sea is a serious issue for the commercial fishing industry. Injury and fatality rates are between 25 and 40 times the national average in many European counties, Australia and the USA. A 50-item safety culture questionnaire was developed, using items from published research combined with some original items. The questionnaire was distributed to fishermen who completed the responses. A total of 209 questionnaires were collected. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed nine factors, all with a Cronbach’s Alpha higher than 0.68. The factors were tested using ANOVA, t-tests, correlations and regression analysis.The findings indicate significant differences between age groups, vessel types, occupations, and whether or not a close family member is a fisherman. It was also found that the safety attitude of management had a strong influence on a company’s safety policy. Fishermen who had sought medical attention during the preceding year as a result of an accident showed a significantly less positive attitude to rules and regulations and had a less positive safety attitude in general. Fishermen who had been involved in a serious accident/incident showed a significantly more positive attitude to rules and regulations.     

航空安全信息管理的问题与对策

航空安全信息是民航实施安全风险控制和事故预防的基础,对航空安全水平的提高有重要的作用。笔者总结了民航安全信息的基本构成和来源,及其在安全风险识别、管理决策方面的功用;结合中国民航安全管理状况及行业发展趋势,分析了当前中国民航安全信息管理方面存在的主要问题,指出当前民航安全信息存在着数量不足、质量不高、交流共享困难、分析利用不充分等问题,不利于基于数据驱动的安全管理机制的建立和向规章符合性基础上的绩效管理的转变。针对安全信息管理的这些问题,文章建议民航局通过改善安全信息管理政策、建立航空企业安全信息共享平台、建立国家航空安全信息分析中心、开发安全信息分析利用工具等措施来改善安全信息的收集、分析利用和共享,为提高行业安全管理水平服务。     

A comparison of special category light-sport and corresponding type-certificated aircraft safety

IntroductionThe special category light sport airplane (light sport) sector of general aviation has grown 10-fold in as many years with solo operations requiring only a sports pilot's certificate. With little research on light sport airplane safety, the study objective was to compare light sport and type-certificated airplane accident rates.MethodAccidents were identified from the National Transportation Safety Board database. Statistics employed Poisson distribution/proportion analyses/Mann–Whitney U-tests.ResultsFor the 2009–2015 period, the light sport airplane accident rate (fatal/non-fatal combined) was > 15-fold higher than comparable type-certificated aircraft, undiminished over time. The excessive light sport airplane accident rate was associated with inferior airman experience (time-in-type, certification). Mishaps were most frequent during landing (40%) and, of these, nearly half were due to a deficiency in the flare. There were a dis-proportionate number of trainees involved in landing accidents compared with mishaps for other phases of operations.ConclusionTowards improving safety, additional light sport training with emphasis on landings and a focus on the flare and directional control is warranted.Practical applicationIn the confines of the present study considering that landing mishaps, the most common accident cause, are often related to deficiencies in the flare and loss-of-directional control, instructors should ensure that airmen have mastered these aspects of landing and, for trainees, acquired the appropriate visual monocular cues.     

Applicability of accident analysis methods to Chinese construction accidents

IntroductionIt is necessary to clearly understand construction accidents for preventing a rise in Chinese construction accidents and deaths. Better analysis methods are required for Chinese construction sector accidents.MethodsChoosing and analyzing a typical construction accident based on four popular contemporary accident causation models: STAMP, AcciMap, HFACS, and the 2-4 Model. Then we evaluated the models' applicability to construction accidents, including their usability, reliability, and validity.ResultsSTAMP addressed how complexity within the accident system influenced the accident development, and its output makes the responsibilities clearer for the accident. AcciMap described the entire system's failure, the entire accident's trajectory, and the relationship between them. AcciMap showed that the accident was a dynamic developing process, and this method has a high usability. The taxonomic nature of HFACS is an important feature that provides it with a high reliability. In the accident reviewed here, we found that poor management was a critical factor rather than the individual factor in the accident. The 2-4 Model provided detailed causes of the accident and established the relationship among the accident causes, the safety management system, and the safety culture. It also avoided capturing all of the complexity in the large sociotechnical system and revealed a dynamic analysis and developing process. We confirmed that it has a high usability and validity. Therefore, the 2-4Model is recommended for future Chinese construction accident analysis efforts.Practical ApplicationsThe study provides a useful, reliable, and effective analysis method for Chinese construction accidents.     

不良安全文化的特征:事故报告再分析

通过对高风险组织安全管理及事故的研究,对事故报告进行文化意义上的编码分析,揭示导致事故发生的不良安全文化特征。该报告再分析的材料是厂内档案可查的事故报告61份,根据其中55份事故报告的专家编码分析结果,得到了不良安全文化的特征是较低水平的管理对安全的承诺、较差的安全遵守、缺乏应急管理的有效措施、沟通与协调障碍。通过聚类分析,安全文化的各因素可以进一步归为两大类安全促进因素与安全保健因素。从文化的角度来看,分别对应着对组织的承诺和对人的承诺两个维度。     

The unfolding of ‘12.23’ Kaixian blowout accident in China

In this research, which takes the ‘12.23’ Kaixian blowout accident in Chongqing as an example, firstly the basic information of the accident, including the affected area, the accident process and the accident consequences, was described. Secondly, the development of the accident and other correlative things were researched in detail, especially the monitoring result of concentrations of toxic gases at different times. Thirdly, the blowout accident was categorized into three stages, and the causes of each stage were analyzed in depth together with the events and causal factors charting. Lastly, the profound problems exposed in the disaster were thoroughly discussed. The analysis on ‘12.23’ Kaixian blowout accident indicates that deficiencies in the proper understanding of the hazards by the crew/management as well as inadequacies in risk assessment, management, and the absence of effective countermeasures resulted in the loss of lives.     

基于ISM—CRITIC法的通用航空可控飞行撞地影响因素分析

为了研究通用航空可控飞行撞地的影响因素,提出针对性的预防措施,采用基元事件分析法对中国民航安全办公室不安全数据库中2006—2015年间发生的30起通用航空可控飞行撞地事件进行分析,建立通用航空可控飞行撞地影响因素体系;运用解释结构模型对影响因素进行两两对比分析,建立3层阶梯有向模型;运用CRITIC法计算各影响因素权重并排序。结果表明:影响通用航空可控飞行撞地事件的表层直接原因分别是注意力分配不当、违反标准运行程序、安全意识淡薄、应急能力弱、导航设备失效、发动机失效、其他天气意外、飞行保障不利和组织混乱;中层间接原因分别是驾驶技能不足、航前准备不足、机组资源管理欠缺、地形复杂、能见度和光线刺激;深层根本原因分别是疲劳驾驶、公司违规和违法组织飞行;影响通用航空可控飞行撞地事件发生的主要因素分别是飞行保障不利和组织混乱、航前准备不足、安全意识淡薄、驾驶技能不足和违反标准运行程序。     

A comparative analysis of safety management and safety performance in twelve construction projects

IntroductionSafety management in construction is complicated due to the complex “nature” of the construction industry. The aim of this research was to identify safety management factors (e.g., risk management and site management), contextual factors (e.g., organisational complexity) and combinations of such factors connected to safety performance. Method: Twelve construction projects were selected to compare their safety management and safety performance. An analytical framework was developed based on previous research, regulations, and standards where each management factor was defined. We employed qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) to produce case knowledge, compare the cases, and identify connections between the factors and safety performance. The material collected and analyzed included, for example, construction planning documents, reports from OHS-inspections, safety indicators, and interviews with project leaders and OHS experts. Results and conclusions: The research showed that: (a) the average score on 12 safety management factors was higher among projects with high safety performance compared to projects with low safety performance; (b) high safety performance can be achieved with both high and low construction complexity and organizational complexity, but these factors complicate coordination of actors and operations; (c) it is possible to achieve high safety performance despite relatively poor performance on many safety management factors; (d) eight safety management factors were found to be “necessary” for high safety performance, namely roles and responsibilities, project management, OHS management and integration, safety climate, learning, site management, staff management, and operative risk management. Site management, operative risk management, and staff management were the three factors most strongly connected to safety performance. Practical implications: Construction stakeholders should understand that the ability to achieve high safety performance in construction projects is connected to key safety management factors, contextual factors, and combinations of such factors.     

Safety in construction – a comprehensive description of the characteristics of high safety standards in construction work, from the combined perspective of supervisors and experienced workers

Introduction

The often applied engineering approach to safety management in the construction industry needs to be supplemented by organizational measures and measures based on how people conceive and react to their social environment. This requires in-depth knowledge of the broad preconditions for high safety standards in construction. The aim of the study was to comprehensively describe the preconditions and components of high safety standards in the construction industry from the perspective of both experienced construction workers and first-line managers.

Method

Five worker safety representatives and 19 first-line managers were interviewed, all strategically selected from within a large Swedish construction project. Phenomenographic methodology was used for data acquisition and analysis and to categorize the information. Nine informants verified the results.

Results

The study identified four main categories of work safety preconditions and components: (1) Project characteristics and nature of the work, which set the limits of safety management; (2) Organization and structures, with the subcategories planning, work roles, procedures, and resources; (3) Collective values, norms, and behaviors, with the subcategories climate and culture, and interaction and cooperation; and (4) Individual competence and attitudes, with the subcategories knowledge, ability and experience, and individual attitudes.

Discussion

The results comprehensively describe high safety standards in construction, incorporating organizational, group, individual, and technical aspects. High-quality interaction between different organizational functions and hierarchical levels stood out as important aspects of safety. The results are discussed in relation to previous research into safety and into the social-psychological preconditions for other desired outcomes in occupational settings.

Impact on Industry

The results can guide construction companies in planning and executing construction projects to a high safety standard.     

The art of measuring nothing: The paradox of measuring safety in a changing civil aviation industry using traditional safety metrics

Measuring safety as an outcome variable within the ultra-safe civil aviation industry during periods of deliberate organizational change is a difficult, and often fruitless, task. Anticipating eroding safety processes, based on measuring nothing happening over time, does not adequately capture the true state of an evolving safe system, and this is particularly relevant for leaders and managers in a civil aviation industry responsible for maintaining and improving ultra-safe performance while simultaneously managing demanding strategic business goals.In this paper, I will look at the difficulties of measuring safety as an outcome measure in high reliability organizations (HROs) using the traditional measures of incident and accident reporting during periods of deliberate organizational change inspired by the results from a 3 year longitudinal case study of the Norwegian Air Navigation Services provider – Avinor. I will first review the current safety literature relating to safety management systems (SMSs) used in the civil aviation industry. I will then propose a more holistic model that shifts the focus from the traditional safety monitoring mechanisms of risk analysis and trial and error learning, to the natural interactivity within socio-technical systems as found in high reliability organizations. And finally, I will present a summary of the empirical results of an alternate methodology for measuring perceived changes in safety at the operational level as leading indicators of evolving safety at the organizational level.     

民航运输企业实施安全文化战略的分析

结合民航运输企业的实际情况,从利于应用出发,给出民航运输企业安全文化的新定义;在总结山东航空公司成立以来安全管理经验的基础上,对安全管理的理念和方法进行总结和提升,使其上升到文化的高度,提出在民航运输企业实施安全文化战略的新构想;论述民航运输企业安全文化的组成、特点、作用及实施方法,提出民航运输企业的安全文化由4个层次组成,即理念、价值观;组织领导;规章制度;操作执行。对各要素之间存在的关系和作用进行系统的论述,使人们对于安全的认识更加系统化;指出实施安全文化战略对民航运输企业保障运输安全有非常重要的意义,并给出实施安全文化战略的几点建议。     

Safety culture in Swedish air traffic control

European air traffic control is undergoing changes in organization and technology in order to increase efficiency in air traffic. Change processes can have a negative impact on existing safety cultures, the foundations of safety work, and on safety. This paper reports on an assessment of safety culture at one administrative and two operative units in a Swedish air traffic control setting, using questionnaire packages and interviews, and focuses on 391 questionnaire respondents. The objectives of the study were to obtain baseline data of safety culture aspects and relationships between safety culture and organizational climate before major organizational and technical changes were implemented, and to yield reference data on safety culture aspects in this transport branch. The safety culture aspects were generally perceived and judged to be good by the respondents. Relationships were identified between the organizational climate and the safety culture at the two operative units, where a higher level of Support for ideas and a lower level of Conflicts were positively related to many of the investigated safety culture aspects. The general safety culture in the air traffic control setting was found to be on a somewhat higher average score level than that found in the authors’ previous studies of passenger shipping and airport ground handling.     

Educational status and organizational safety climate: Does educational attainment influence workers’ perceptions of workplace safety?

From a practical perspective, understanding the impact of education on perceptions of workplace safety would benefit management’s decisions regarding workers’ adaptability, general work effectiveness, accident frequency, implementation of safety management policies, and handling of education-related accident characteristics. The current study thus examined the relationship between educational attainment and (i) safety perception, (ii) job satisfaction, (iii) compliance with safety management policies, and (iv) accident frequency. Participants were Ghanaian industrial workers (N = 320) categorized into four educational groups based on their responses: basic education 50% (n = 159); secondary education, n = 98 (30%); vocational/professional education, 17% (n = 56); and university education, 3% (n = 7). Workplace safety perception was assessed with Hayes et al.’s 50-item Work Safety Scale (WSS): a scale that effectively captures the dimensions identified by safety experts to influence perceptions of workplace safety. Multivariate analysis (MANOVA) was used to test for differences of statistical significance. Posterior comparison with t-test consistently revealed significant differences between the two higher-educated cohorts and their lower-educated counterparts. The results indicated a positive association between education and safety perception. Higher-educated workers recorded the best perceptions on safety, indicated the highest level of job satisfaction, were the most compliant with safety procedures and recorded the lowest accident involvement rate.     

Arabian,Asian, western: a cross-cultural comparison of aircraft accidents from human factor perspectives

Introduction. Rates of aviation accident differ in different regions; and national culture has been implicated as a factor. This invites a discussion about the role of national culture in aviation accidents. This study makes a cross-cultural comparison between Oman, Taiwan and the USA. Method. A cross-cultural comparison was acquired using data from three studies, including this study, by applying the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) framework. The Taiwan study presented 523 mishaps with 1762 occurrences of human error obtained from the Republic of China Air Force. The study from the USA carried out for commercial aviation had 119 accidents with 245 instances of human error. This study carried out in Oman had a total of 40 aircraft accidents with 129 incidences. Results. Variations were found between Oman, Taiwan and the USA at the levels of organisational influence and unsafe supervision. Seven HFACS categories showed significant differences between the three countries (p?<?0.05). Conclusion. Although not given much consideration, national culture can have an impact on aviation safety. This study revealed that national culture plays a role in aircraft accidents related to human factors that cannot be disregarded.     

Safety in high-risk helicopter operations: The role of additional crew in accident prevention

ObjectivesTo examine the causes associated with high risk helicopter operations, in particular external load and aerial application flight, and determine the role of crew management in accident mitigation strategies.MethodsData from the US National Transportation Safety Board online database were analyzed. Flight phases and types of rotor strike were added categories extracted from the narrative statements included in the accident reports.Results and recommendationsAerial application and external load accidents are characterized by high numbers of rollovers, rotor strikes and errors during preflight checks. Additional flight or ground crew may assist the pilot in maintaining a visual lookout. The number of accidents can be further reduced with adequate fuel management in which both pilot and ground crew can contribute. Although the ground crew can be both victim and cause of an accident, their supporting role has much to contribute to safety in high risk helicopter operations.     

我国矿山透水事故致因分析及安全管理对策

为找出影响矿山透水事故的主要因素,提出有针对性的管理对策.首先利用统计分析方法对80起透水事故案例原因进行统计分析,结果显示导致矿山透水事故的直接原因主要有违章、非法开采、越界开采、防水设施不符合规范要求、水文地质资料不清、破坏防水设施;间接原因主要有思想麻痹、安全监督检查不到位、违反探放水原则、法律意识淡薄、安全教育培训不到位.其次,结合透水事故的发生机理,利用鱼刺图法从人、物、环境和管理等方面进行系统分析.综合统计分析和系统分析,确定影响矿山透水事故的主要因素为管理因素.在此基础上,提出了相应的安全管理对策.     

Work-safety tension, perceived risk, and worker injuries: a meso-mediational model

IntroductionWork-safety tension arises when workers perceive that working safely is at odds with effectively doing their jobs. We proposed that workers’ perceptions of work-safety tension would be associated with higher levels of perceived risk, which would, in turn, relate to worker injuries on the job.MethodGrocery store workers (n = 600) completed an online survey and organizational worker injury reports were obtained for a two-year period following the survey. Survey results were linked to subsequent worker injuries using hierarchical generalized linear modeling.ResultsWe found support for the proposed meso-mediation model: department work-safety tension predicted subsequent worker injuries, partially through an association with workers’ risk perceptions.ConclusionsSafety researchers and consultants and organizational leaders should look beyond typically-examined safety climate constructs, such as management commitment to safety, and pay particular attention to workers’ perceptions of work-safety tension.