LIMITATIONS OF CONCEPTS USED TO DETERMINE INSTREAM FLOW REQUIREMENTS FOR HABITAT MAINTENANCE1

ABSTRACT: Today most rivers are not freely flowing but are highly regulated to meet both human and wildlife needs. Several models allow the determination of instream flows that are needed to meet wildlife demands. However, these models are based on assumptions that limit their applicability to certain types of rivers. While these limitations do not preclude the use of the models on other types of rivers, like the Platte River in Nebraska, their limitations should be considered and accommodated by those making instream flow planning and management decisions. Other factors affecting channel morphology and its associated wildlife habitat, such as threshold values and vegetation are not adequately considered by current concepts. If rivers are to be managed to provide wildlife habitat, these factors will have to be addressed.     

REVIEW OF DETERMINATION OF INSTREAM FLOW REQUIREMENTS WITH SPECIAL APPLICATION TO AUSTRALIA1

ABSTRACT: A critical examination of the techniques used to assess and specify environmental instream flow requirements is provided. The strengths and weaknesses of individual techniques are evaluated on both an absolute and a comparative basis. Particular attention is given to the problem of specifying environmental flow requirements in Australia where the hydrology has distinctly different characteristics to those in countries where most of the models for prediction of instream flow requirements were developed. Broad recommendations as to the suitability and use of the different techniques for different conditions are provided.     

INSTREAM FLOW REQUIREMENTS IN THE POWDER RIVER COAL BASIN1

ABSTRACT: As coal resources are developed in the Northern Great Plains regions, new reservoirs are being considered to meet expanding water demands. The amount of water available for industrial diversion, however, could be limited by regulations that require minimum flow levels to be maintained downstream of the reservoir sites. Computer simulations of potential reservoirs were used to determine to what extent, if any, instream flow requirements might limit the ability of reservoirs to deliver industrial water supplies. Data on instream flow requirements, potential reservoir sites, and historic runoff were input for the simulation of the Powder River Region of Montana and Wyoming. Results of the simulations compared the maximum amount of water available for industrial diversion with and without requiring instream flow criteria.     

QUANTIFICATION OF INSTREAM FLOW NEEDS OF A WILD AND SCENIC RIVER FOR WATER RIGHTS LITIGATION1

ABSTRACT: The lower 4 miles of the Red River, a tributary of the Rio Grande in northern New Mexico, was designated as one of the “instant” components of the National Wild and Scenic River System in 1968. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM), as the managing agency of the wild and scenic river, was a participant in a general water rights adjudication of the Red River stream system. The BLM sought a federal reserved water right and asserted a claim to the instream flows necessary to protect and maintain the values of the river. Instream flows are not recognized under New Mexico water law. Instream flow requirements were determined by several methods to quantify the claims made by the United States for a federal reserved water right under the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act. The scenic (aesthetic), recreational, and fish and wildlife values are the purposes for which instream flow requirements were claimed. Since water quality is related to these values, instream flows for waste transport and protection of water quality were also included in the claim. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Instream Flow Incremental Methodology was used to quantify the relationship between various flow regimes and fish habitat. Experience in this litigation indicates the importance of using state-of-the-art methodologies in quantifying instream flow claims. The incremental methodology held up well under technical and legal scrutiny and is an example of the latest methodology that was applied successfully in an adjudication. On February 23, 1984, the parties involved in the adjudication entered a precedential stipulation recognizing a federal reserved right to instream flows for the Red River component of the National Wild and Scenic River System.     

ASSESSING FLUSHING-FLOW REQUIREMENTS FOR BROWN TROUT SPAWNING GRAVELS IN STEEP STREAMS1

Flushing flows are re1eses from dams designed to remove fine sediment from downstream spawning habitat. We evaluated flushing flows on reaches proposed for hydroelectric diversions on seven streams in the eastern Sierra Nevada, California, with wild populations of brown trout (Salmo trutta). The stream reaches are steep (average map slopes range from 7 to 17 percent), are dominated by boulder cascades, and afford few opportunities for gravel deposition. Methods for estimating flushing flows from flow records, developed from studies in other localities, produced widely differing results when applied to the study streams, probably reflecting differences in the hydrologic and geomorphic characteristics of the streams on which the methods were developed. Tracer gravel experiments demonstrated that all sampled gravels were washed out by the flows of 1986, a wet year. Size analyses of gravel samples and hydraulic data from field surveys were used in tractive-force calculations in an attempt to specify the flow required to flush the gravels. However, these calculations produced some unrealistic results because the flows were nonuniform in the study reaches. This suggests that the tractive-force approach may not be generally applicable to small, steep streams where nonuniform flow conditions prevail.     

ESTIMATED STREAM FLOW REQUIREMENTS FOR FISHES OF THE WASHITA RIVER BELOW FOSS RESERVOIR,WESTERN OKLAHOMA1

Velocity and depth preference curves for juvenile and adult red shiners (Notropis lutrensis) were developed for each season of the year. The incremental methodology, developed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for quantifying the amount of physical habitat available for fish, was applied as a basis for recommending minimum stream flows for life stages of red shiners and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) in the Washita River below Foss Reservoir. The minimum stream flow required to support populations of red shiners and channel catfish was estimated to be 0.60 m³/s during all months except April and May, during which flushing flows of 3.0 m³/s were recommended. Under drought conditions a contingency flow of 0.18 m³/s was recommended for August through March, a flushing flow of 2.4 m³/s for April and May, and a flow of 0.30 m³/s for channel catfish spawning in June and July. Standing crop of adult red shiners per weighted usable area averaged 2.73 g/m² (27 kg/ha) for two sites on the Washita River. A positive relation between standing crop and weighted usable area was suggested. Use of the incremental methodology on the study reach below Foss Reservoir required 96 person-hours of labor, excluding training, travel, and developing preference curves, and a total cost of $1,762, of which $1,200 was for the purchase of equipment.     

STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS OF INFILTRATION AND OVERLAND FLOW FOR SPATIALLY-VARIED HILLSLOPES1

ABSTRACT: An envelope of steady-state surface runoff response for a hilislope is established in terms of the probability distribution and spatial arrangement of individual point infiltration capacities and the rainfall intensity. Minimum overland flow is shown to occur when point infiltration capacities are ordered with the highest at the slope bottom, while maximum overland flow occurs when the highest point capacities are at the top of the slope. Equations for envelope curves are developed for both continuous distributions and discretely sampled data; examples for each case are given. Use of the analysis as a rainfall-runoff model is also discussed.     

FLOW DURATION CURVES II: A REVIEW OF APPLICATIONS IN WATER RESOURCES PLANNING1

ABSTRACT: A streamflow duration curve illustrates the relationship between the frequency and magnitude of streamflow. Flow duration curves have a long history in the field of water-resource engineering and have been used to solve problems in water-quality management, hydropower, instream flow methodologies, water-use planning, flood control, and river and reservoir sedimentation, and for scientific comparisons of streamflow characteristics across watersheds. This paper reviews traditional applications and provides extensions to some new applications, including water allocation, wasteload allocation, river and wetland inundation mapping, and the economic selection of a water-resource project.     

METHODS AND DATA REQUIREMENTS FOR RIVER-QUALITY ASSESSMENT1

ABSTRACT: The U.S. Geological Survey is now (1975) conducting an intensive river-quality assessment of the Willamette River basin, Oregon. The objectives are to (1) define a practical framework for conducting comprehensive river-quality assessments, (2) develop and document methods for evaluating basin-development alternatives in terms of potential impacts on river quality, (3) determine the kinds and amounts of data required to adequately assess various types of river-quality problems, and (4) apply the framework, data, and methods to assess the existing or potential river-quality problems of the Willamette River basin. This paper covers objectives 2, 3, and 4 by examining the rationales behind the selection and application of methods and the design of data programs for assessing specific river-quality problems. The rationales are those developed for assessing (1) the effect of population and industrial growth and resulting waste discharges on river-dissolved oxygen, (2) the potentially harmful effects on land and river quality of accelerated erosion resulting from intensive land-use development, and (3) the potential for nuisance algal growth. The goal of the assessment program and, thus, the context of the rationales is to provide technically sound information that is appropriate and adequate for resource planning and management.     

A COMPARISON OF METHODS FOR ESTIMATING LOW FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF STREAMS1

ABSTRACT: Four methods for estimating the 7-day, 10-year and 7-day, 20-year low flows for streams are compared by the bootstrap method. The bootstrap method is a Monte Carlo technique in which random samples are drawn from an unspecified sampling distribution defined from observed data. The nonparametric nature of the bootstrap makes it suitable for comparing methods based on a flow series for which the true distribution is unknown. Results show that the two methods based on hypothetical distributions (Log-Pearson III and Weibull) had lower mean square errors than did the Box-Cox transformation method or the Log-Boughton method which is based on a fit of plotting positions.     

ANALYSIS AND EXTRACTION OF LOW FLOW RECESSION CHARACTERISTICS1

ABSTRACT: It is important to extract and assess low flow recession characteristics for water resources planning in the upper reaches of streams. However, it is very difficult to express synthetically the low flow recession characteristics for a stream flow. In this paper, first a new method of constructing the master recession curve based on the exponential expression is proposed and applied with the restriction that there are no regulation or diversion structures in the upper reaches above the measurement station. Daily precipitation and stream flow were used for the analysis. Second, analysis for a recession constant was conducted and the relationship between the recession constant and low flow and/or geology was qualitatively examined. In conclusion, the application of the proposed method indicated that it is objective and useful for constructing the master recession curve. It became apparent that the recession constant of a master recession curve may be defined as the total index of low flow characteristics. In addition, it was found that baseflow value increases in the order of Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Tertiary, and Quaternary.     

ASSESSING THE DIRECT EFFECTS OF STREAMFLOW ON RECREATION: A LITERATURE REVIEW1

ABSTRACT: A variety of methods have been used to learn about the relation between streamfiow and recreation quality. Regardless of method, nearly all studies found a similar nonlinear relation of recreation to flow, with quality increasing with flow to a point, and then decreasing for further increases in flow. Points of minimum, optimum, and maximum flow differ across rivers and activities. Knowledge of the effects of streamflow on recreation, for the variety of relevant activities and skill levels, is an important ingredient in the determination of wise streamflow policies.     

MONTANA'S EXPERIENCE IN RESERVING YELLOWSTONE RIVER WATER FOR INSTREAM BENEFICIAL USES - THE RESERVATION DECISION1

ABSTRACT: The Yellowstone River in Montana produces an abundant supply of high quality water, but in the early 1970's, the specter of mushrooming energy development in the drainage with its attendant demands for large volumes of water prompted this state to initiate steps to protect existing users and to control future water uses. A Water Use Act was passed in 1973, and a moratorium was subsequently placed on the granting of new permits for major diversion. During this moratorium, various governmental entities were given the opportunity to request the reservation of water for future beneficial uses, including instream purposes. An earlier paper described the reservation applications that were received by the state, and it also summarized the legal framework of the reservation process in Montana. Since that time, the responsible state agency has had the opportunity to review the reservation requests, and its final decision in this regard was announced in December of 1978. This paper describes the details of this decision. Basically, an attempt was made to preserve the integrity of the stream while also strengthening its agricultural uses. In addition, a portion of the flow was not earmarked which will provide some flexibility in reacting to future demands.     

A TECHNIQUE FOR MEASURING SCOUR AND FILL OF SALMON SPAWNING RIFFLES IN HEADWATER STREAMS1

A 30 x 0.9 cm piece of steel rod bent in the shape of an “L” and attached by hose clamps to a 15 x 3.2 cm section of plastic pipe sliding on an 86 x 1.9 cm steel shaft was tested for use in measuring scour and fill of salmon spawning riffles. Installed along channel cross-sections, results of tests at four sites on two hydraulically different streams showed the device to be useful in monitoring event specific scour and fill. Measurement error was estimated to be ± 10 mm.     

MONTANA'S EXPERIENCE IN RESERVING YELLOWSTONE RIVER WATER FOR INSTREAM BENEFICIAL USES - LEGAL FRAMEWORK1

ABSTRACT: The Yellowstone River historically has produced an ample supply of high quality water which is widely used for irrigation, municipal and industrial purposes, recreation, and fish and wildlife. Recently, energy companies have attempted to obtain water rights in the Yellowstone basin for energy conversion facilities in coal-rich southeastern Montana. Existing users fear that energy diversions will impair their rights, preclude expansion of present beneficial users, degrade water quality, and adversely effect fish and aquatic life. In response to these concerns, the Montana Legislature enacted several laws to regulate water appropriations in the Yellowstone River basin, including means by which state and federal agencies could apply for reservations of water for future beneficial uses. Thereafter, both the Montana Fish and Game Commission and the State Water Quality Bureau formally requested relatively large instream flows to protect fish and wildlife and to maintain water quality. This paper describes Montana's experience through December of 1977 with the administration of water in the Yellowstone basin under these laws; emphasis is placed on the major requests for instream flows. The final resolution of the reservation applications, and the related ramifications, will be discussed in a future paper.     

CRITICAL DATA REQUIREMENTS FOR PREDICTION OF EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION IN MOUNTAIN DRAINAGE BASINS1

ABSTRACT: The potential for understanding and, where necessary, managing sedimentation in humid mountain drainage basins increases with awareness of the conditions that lead to shallow landsliding, debris flows, and catastrophic sedimentation in stream channels. Progress in understanding has involved: improved recognition of source areas and the potential for downstream effects of slope failure; improved understanding of hydrological conditions required for failure; and a general theory of slope stability in shallow colluvium, including the role of plants, fires, timber harvest, and other disturbances. The theory acknowledges spatial variability in topographic and geotechnical terrain characteristics, the stochastic nature of climatic triggering events such as forest fires and rainstorms, and the integrating nature of channel networks in modulating the cumulative effects of transient processes within a basin. Anthropogenic fire regimes, road effects, and timber harvest can readily be included. Continued application and modification of the theory over an expanded geographical range require improvements in field data and their systematic storage in spatial databases. Improvements in digital topographic data for mountain basins, systematic network-wide surveys of channel conditions, and new technology for rapid documentation of soil depths in landslide source areas would enhance the prediction of mass failure, its consequences for channel habitat, and the basin-wide or regional distribution of hillslope and channel conditions. Computations of the probabilities of transient effects throughout basins could then form the basis of ecological risk analyses. Large-scale spatial data sets of a few critical variables are required before this next level of understanding can be developed and applied to sedimentation impacts on ecosystems and other resources.     

A COMPARISON OF TRANSFORMATION METHODS FOR FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSIS1

ABSTRACT: The SMEMAX transformation, its modified versions and power transformation were applied to 55 long-term records of annual maximum flood flows tested previously for independence, homogeneity and completeness. Even though SMEMAX transformation reduced the coefficient of skewness to near zero for flood data, their distribution was not a true normal distribution. In almost all cases, the coefficient of kurtosis was quite different from 3.0 of the normal distribution. Empirical criteria showed that SMEMAX transformation performed well only for 40 (70 percent) of the 55 stations tested. Its performance level dropped, especially for stations which had both the coefficient of skewness and kurtosis greater than 3.0 and 10.0, respectively. Power transformation was generally better in transforming the flood data to a normal distribution. It performed well for 50 (90 percent) of the 55 stations tested. The coefficient of skewness in case of the data transformed by power transformation was much closer to the zero value than in the case of SMEMAX transformed series. The SMEMAX transformation and its two modified versions yielded identical results when flood frequency analysis was performed. Computationally, all three methods were equally simple and easy to apply for flood frequency analysis. In some cases, the coefficient of kurtosis for the transformed distributions obtained both by SMEMAX and power transformations deviated farther from that for the normal distribution than for the parent distribution.     

FOURIER INFERENCE: SOME METHODS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF ARRAY AND NONGAUSSIAN SERIES DATA1

Fourier inference is a collection of analytic techniques and philosophic attitudes, for the analysis of data, wherein essential use is made of empirical Fourier transforms. This paper sets down some basic results concerning the finite Fourier transforms of stationary process data and then, to illustrate the approach, uses those results to develop procedures for: 1) estimating cloud and storm motion, 2) passive sonar and 3) fitting finite parameter models to nonGaussian time series via bispectral fitting. This last procedure is illustrated by an analysis of a stretch of Mississippi River runoff data. Examples 1), 2) refer to data having the form Y(x_j, y_j, t) for j = 1, …, J and t = 0, …, T-l say, and view that data as part of a realization of a spatial-temporal process. Such data has become common in geophysics generally and in hydrology particularly. The goal of this paper is to present some new statistical procedures pertinent to problems in the water sciences, equally it is to illustrate the genesis of those procedures and how their properties may be approximated.     

PLANNING LEVEL ESTIMATES OF THE VALUE OF RESERVOIRS FOR WATER SUPPLY AND FLOW AUGMENTATION IN NEW HAMPSHIRE1

: In general, the choice among reservoirs for water supply or flow augmentation is a multiobjective problem. Choices are based in part on the yield available from water supply reservoirs or, in the case of flow augmentation reservoirs, on the increase in low flows at downstream locations. Detailed estimates of these effects may be too costly for basin planning purposes. Thus this paper presents methods for rapid estimation of those quantities for New Hampshire. For water supply reservoirs, a composite empirical relation between Y95 (the draft available 95 percent of the time) and storage ratio, S*, is developed from previous studies in the region. For flow augmentation reservoirs, empirical relations between S* and degree of regulation, R*, are applied to each upstream regulating reservoir. Values of regulation arc then summed and divided by the mean flow at the downstream reach of interest. This parameter, (ΓR)*, is then related to increase in flow available 95 percent of the time by an empirical relation.     

UNSATURATED FLOW THROUGH SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS: MODEL AND SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS1

ABSTRACT: The movement of precipitation water infiltrating through the material (refuse) of solid waste landfills is examined via numerical solution of the equations of continuity, and motion (Darcy's Law). The solution of the equations is obtained by a fully implicit, finite-difference scheme. Both unsaturated and saturated surface conditions are considered, making the scheme suitable for real-time simulation of net precipitation and moisture redistribution events. A sensitivity analysis showed that for unsaturated surface conditions the solution is primarily affected by hydraulic conductivity and capillary diffusivity, and is relatively independent of the space and time steps. In addition, the precipitation averaging process is shown to be critical in the correct computation of moisture transport during the time period where the transition from unsaturated to saturated conditions occurs. The model presented herein is suitable for analysis of water movement through landfills, and the design of bottom collection systems.