Dropout during a driving simulator study: A survival analysis

IntroductionSimulator sickness is the occurrence of motion-sickness like symptoms that can occur during use of simulators and virtual reality technologies. This study investigated individual factors that contributed to simulator sickness and dropout while using a desktop driving simulator.MethodEighty-eight older adult drivers (mean age 72.82 ± 5.42 years) attempted a practice drive and two test drives. Participants also completed a battery of cognitive and visual assessments, provided information on their health and driving habits, and reported their experience of simulator sickness symptoms throughout the study.ResultsFifty-two participants dropped out before completing the driving tasks. A time-dependent Cox Proportional Hazards model showed that female gender (HR = 2.02), prior motion sickness history (HR = 2.22), and Mini-SSQ score (HR = 1.55) were associated with dropout. There were no differences between dropouts and completers on any of the cognitive abilities tests.ConclusionsOlder adults are a high-risk group for simulator sickness. Within this group, female gender and prior motion sickness history are related to simulator dropout. Higher reported experience of symptoms of simulator sickness increased rates of dropout.Practical applicationsThe results highlight the importance of screening and monitoring of participants in driving simulation studies. Older adults, females, and those with a prior history of motion sickness may be especially at risk.     

Being watched over by a conversation robot may enhance safety in simulated driving

IntroductionIn an aging society that is more and more information-oriented, being able to replace human passengers’ protective effects on vehicle drivers with those of social robots is both essential and promising. However, the effects of a social robot’s presence on drivers have not yet been fully explored. Thus, using a driving simulator and a conversation robot, this experimental study had two main goals: (a) to find out whether social robots’ anthropomorphic qualities (i.e., not the practical information the robot provides drivers) have protective effects by promoting attentive driving and alleviating crash risks; and (b) by what psychological processes such effects emerge. Method: Participants were recruited from young (n = 38), the middle-aged (n = 39), and the elderly (n = 49) age groups. They were assigned to either the treatment group (simulated driving in a conversation robot’s presence) or the control group (simulated driving alone), and their driving performance was measured. Mental states (peaceful, concentrating, and reflective) also were assessed in a post-driving questionnaire using our original scales. Results: Although the group of older participants did not experience protective effects (perhaps due to motion sickness), the young participants drove attentively, with the robot enhancing peace of mind. The protective effect was also observed among the middle-aged participants, and the verbal data analysis ascribed this to the robot’s role of expressing sympathy, especially when the middle-aged drivers nearly had not-at-fault crashes, which caused them to be stressed. In conclusion, we discuss the practical implications of the results.     

Effects of two doses of methylphenidate on simulator driving performance in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

INTRODUCTION: Numerous studies have documented an increased frequency of vehicular crashes, traffic citations, driving performance deficits, and driving-related cognitive impairments in teens and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. METHOD: The present study evaluated the effects of two single, acute doses of methylphenidate (10 and 20 mg) and a placebo on the driving performance of 53 adults with ADHD (mean age=37 years, range=18-65) using a virtual reality driving simulator, examiner and self-ratings of simulator performance, and a continuous performance test (CPT) to evaluate attention and inhibition. A double-blind, drug-placebo, within-subjects crossover design was used in which all participants were tested at baseline and then experienced all three drug conditions. RESULTS: A significant beneficial effect for the high dose of medication was observed on impulsiveness on CPT, variability of steering in the standard driving course, and driving speed during the obstacle course. A beneficial effect of the low dose of medication also was evident on turn signal use during the standard driving course. An apparent practice effect was noted on some of the simulator measures between the baseline and subsequent testing sessions that may have interacted with and thereby obscured drug effects on those measures. CONCLUSIONS: The results, when placed in the context of prior studies of stimulants on driving performance, continue to recommend their clinical use as one means of reducing the driving risks in ADHD teens and adults. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: Given the significantly higher risk of adverse driving outcomes associated with ADHD, industry needs to better screen for ADHD among employees who drive as part of employment so as to improve safety and reduce costs. Use of stimulants to treat the adult ADHD driver may reduce safety risks.     

The impact of intersection design on simulated driving performance of young and senior adults

PURPOSE: The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) proposed guidelines for highway design to increase the safe driving ability of older drivers; however, little empirical evidence exists to support the effectiveness of these guidelines. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of implementing these guidelines (in 4 pairs of intersections) on safe driving performance of older and younger drivers using a high-fidelity driving simulator. DESIGN AND METHODS: We replicated four intersection pairs (improved versus unimproved) in a high-fidelity, virtual reality driving simulator. Simulator scenarios were created from actual road locations, replicating road geometrics and traffic control devices. The simulator's controls were integrated with an actual vehicle to make the driving experience as realistic as possible. Kinematic measures were obtained from the simulator in conjunction with driving errors recorded by trained driving evaluators sitting in the cab of the car. Thirty-nine subjects, 19 younger and 20 older adults, participated in the study. RESULTS: For the kinematic data we found greater lateral control, as indicated by significantly smaller maximum yaw during the turn phase, at all of the improved intersections when compared to the unimproved intersections. We found some significant age differences, but mostly in only one of the intersection-pairs. For the behavioral data, there were significant differences in driving errors between improved and unimproved intersections in two intersection-pairs; however, there were no significant differences in driving errors between the older and younger drivers. IMPLICATIONS: The findings suggest that both young and older drivers may benefit from roadways with safety features recommended by the FHWA guidelines as indicated by the increased lateral control of the vehicle when negotiating these intersections. These findings generate critical information for those involved in the design of roadway systems.     

Evaluation of measures of impairment in real and simulated driving: Results from a randomized,placebo-controlled study

Objective: Standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP) is often the primary outcome in experimental studies on impaired driving. However, other measures may be easier and more practical to obtain and reflect a broader range of driving-related behaviors. We wanted to assess the validity and sensitivity of a range of measures in a driving simulator as well as during real driving and compare these to SDLP.

Methods: Twenty healthy male volunteers undertook 6 driving trials each, 3 in a regular car on a closed track resembling rural road conditions and 3 in a simulator with an identical driving scenario. Ethanol was used as impairing substance due to its well-characterized effects on driving. The subjects were tested sober and at blood alcohol concentrations (BAC) of approximately 0.5 and 0.9 g/L. We explored dose–response relationships between BAC and a range of driving-related measures, as well as their BAC-dependent effect sizes.

Results: In simulator driving, ethanol intake increased steering wheel reversal frequency, steering wheel movement measures, average speed, standard deviation of speed, and pedal use frequency. At the test track, only steering wheel movement and standard deviation of speed were significantly correlated to BAC. Likewise, reaction to unexpected incidents and observance of red traffic lights were adversely affected by ethanol in the simulator but not at the test track. Whereas SDLP showed a relatively large effect size that was similar in simulated and real driving, all other measures demonstrated smaller effect sizes, with less pronounced BAC effects on the test track than in the simulator.

Conclusions: The results suggest that the driving-related measures explored in this study are less sensitive to alcohol-mediated driving impairment than SDLP, especially during real (test track) driving. The discrepancy in effect sizes between simulated and real driving may imply low external validity of these measures in simulator studies.     

On-road and simulated driving: concurrent and discriminant validation

Introduction

A converging pair of studies investigated the validity of a simulator for measuring driving performance/skill.

Study 1

A concurrent validity study compared novice driver performance during an on-road driving test with their performance on a comparable simulated driving test.

Results

Results showed a reasonable degree of concordance in terms of the distribution of driving errors on-road and errors on the simulator. Moreover, there was a significant relationship between the two when driver performance was rank ordered according to errors, further establishing the relative validity of the simulator. However, specific driving errors on the two tasks were not closely related suggesting that absolute validity could not be established and that overall performance is needed to establish the level of skill.

Study 2

A discriminant validity study compared driving performance on the simulator across three groups of drivers who differ in their level of experience - a group of true beginners who had no driving experience, a group of novice drivers who had completed driver education and had a learner's permit, and a group of fully licensed, experienced drivers.

Results

The findings showed significant differences among the groups in the expected direction -- the various measures of driving errors showed that beginners performed worse than novice drivers and that experienced drivers had the fewest errors. Collectively, the results of the concurrent and discriminant validity studies support the use of the simulator as a valid measure of driving performance for research purposes.

Impact on industry

These findings support the use of a driving simulator as a valid measure of driving performance for research purposes. Future research should continue to examine validity between on-road driving performance and performance on a driving simulator and the use of simulated driving tests in the evaluation of driver education/training programs.     

Using a driving simulator to identify older drivers at inflated risk of motor vehicle crashes

PROBLEM: To develop appropriate assessment criteria to measure the performance of older drivers using an interactive PC-based driving simulator, and to determine which measures were associated with the occurrence of motor-vehicle crash. METHOD: One hundred and twenty-nine older drivers residing in a metropolitan city volunteered to participate in this retrospective cohort study. Using the driving simulator, appropriate driving tasks were devised to test the older drivers, whose performances were assessed by 10 reliable assessment criteria. Logistic regression analysis was then undertaken to determine those criteria that influence the self-reported crash outcome. RESULTS: As expected, driving skill of older drivers was found to decline with age. Over 60% of the sample participants reported having at least one motor-vehicle crash during the past year. Adjusting for age in a logistic regression analysis, the cognitive abilities associated with the crash occurrence were working memory, decision making under pressure of time, and confidence in driving at high speed. SUMMARY: The findings of this retrospective study indicated those individuals at inflated risk of vehicle crashes could be identified using the PC-based interactive driving simulator. Prospective studies need to be undertaken to determine whether the driving simulator can predict future crash events. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: This study demonstrated an economical driving simulator approach to screen out problematic or unsafe older drivers before a more detailed but expensive road test is considered.     

Exploring simulated driving performance among varsity male soccer players

Background: It is documented that male athletes display riskier behaviors while driving (as well as in life in general) than female athletes and nonathletes. However, the literature has reported that athletes show better driving ability than nonathletes. This paradox between behaviors and abilities motivated the present study to further understand the collision risk of varsity athletes.

Objective: The current study estimates the performance differences between varsity male soccer players and male undergraduate nonathletes on (1) a driving task and (2) three perceptual–cognitive tasks (associated with collision risk prediction; i.e., Useful Field of View [UFOV] test).

Methods: Thirty-five male undergraduate students (15 varsity soccer players, 20 undergraduate nonathletes) took part in this study. Driving performance was assessed during 14?min of urban commuting using a driving simulator. While completing the simulated driving task and UFOV test, the physiological responses were monitored using an electrocardiograph (ECG) to document heart rate variability (HRV).

Results: Varsity soccer players showed more risky behaviors at the wheel compared to their nonathlete student peers. Varsity soccer players spent more time over the speed limit, committed more driving errors, and adopted fewer safe and legal behaviors. However, no difference was observed between both groups on driving skill variables (i.e., vehicle control, vehicle mobility, ecodriving). For subtests 1 and 2 of the UFOV (i.e., processing speed, divided attention), both groups performed identically (i.e., 17?ms). The nonathlete group tended to perform better on the selective attention task (i.e., subtest 3 of UFOV test; 63.2?±?6.2?ms vs. 87.2?±?10.7?ms, respectively; this difference was not significant, P = .76).

Conclusion: Preventive driving measures should be enforced in this high-risk population to develop strategies for risk reduction in male team athletes.     

Evaluation of a video-based measure of driver heart rate

IntroductionInternal driver events such as emotional arousal do not consistently elicit observable behaviors. However, heart rate (HR) offers promise as a surrogate measure for predicting these states in drivers. Imaging photoplethysmography (IPPG) can measure HR from face video recorded in static, indoor settings, but has yet to be examined in an in-vehicle driving environment.MethodsParticipants (N = 10) completed an on-road driving task whilst wearing a commercial, chest-strap style heart rate monitor (“baseline”). IPPG was applied to driver face video to estimate HR and the two measures of HR were compared.ResultsFor 4 of 10 participants, IPPG produced a valid HR signal (± 5 BPM of baseline) between 48 and 75% of trip duration. For the remaining participants, IPPG accuracy was poor (< 20%).ConclusionsIn-vehicle IPPG is achievable, but significant challenges remain.Practical applicationsThe relationship between IPPG accuracy and various confounding factors was quantified for future refinement.     

基于心电信号的音乐节拍对作业疲劳作用分析

利用MP150多道生理仪记录心电信号的变化,从听觉的角度,通过HR(Heart Rate,HR)和频域指标的变化,分析两种节拍的音乐(慢节拍音乐60~100拍/min和快节拍音乐120~160拍/min)对作业疲劳的影响,并以静息组为对照组进行了3组试验。结果表明:1)方差分析表明,音乐对心率变化无较大的影响,而对LF(LowFrequency)、HF(High-Frequency)影响较大;2)心电数据分析表明,短时间聆听慢节拍的音乐有助于心率的恢复;3)心率变异性分析表明,音乐使LF降低,HF升高,副交感神经兴奋性增强,能缓解作业疲劳。     

The effects of a joint range-of-motion physical fitness training program on the automobile driving skills of older adults

Previous attempts to sustain the automobile driving skills of older adults have centered on modifying the driving environment, improving the design of the vehicle, or introducing comprehensive educational programs. This research represents the first experimental investigation of the effects of a physical fitness training program on the automobile driving performance of older adults. Thirty-two older adults were assigned randomly, stratified by gender, to either an experimental group who participated in an 8 week range-of-motion exercise training program or a control group. A 2 (Experimental group/Control group) × 3 (Testing Session) repeated measures experimental design was used to examine the effects of the 8 week range-of-motion exercise training program on subject range of motion and a field-based assessment of automobile driving skill. The results indicated that the program was successful in improving subject shoulder flexibility and trunk rotation, as well as improving scores on the driving skill measure of observing.     

城市道路环境中驾驶人应激反应能力研究

为预防驾驶人在城市道路行车时因应激反应失误而引发交通事故,基于动力定型理论,开发驾驶人应激反应训练系统并进行仿真试验研究。试验选用30名被试人员分别在3个城市道路中典型应激交通场景下进行,运用MP150实时记录被试人员的心率参数,运用对数回归和相关性分析,研究应激反应能力与训练次数间的定量关系。研究结果表明,随着训练次数增加,驾驶人应激反应能力增强。驾驶人经过标准规定次数的训练,即可减缓应激状态下的心理紧张,提高应激反应准确性和速度。设计的系统及建立的训练次数标准,满足驾驶人应激反应能力训练需求,可增强驾驶人应激能力,减少此类交通事故发生。     

基于驾驶模拟的自动驾驶接管行为研究*

为探索有条件自动驾驶对非驾驶相关任务的允准边界,基于实车驾驶模拟器,设计自动驾驶接管试验典型场景,招募30名被试者开展驾驶模拟试验;要求驾驶人执行3种分心形式的驾驶次任务,系统发出接管请求提示后,驾驶人接管车辆控制权以避免险情发生,并分析驾驶人接管反应时间、驾驶负荷以及驾驶绩效等相关数据。结果表明:驾驶次任务涉及的分心形式越复杂,接管过程安全性越差,视觉分心任务与操作分心任务对接管行为影响显著;驾驶人更倾向于选择制动操作接管车辆,次任务分心程度越高,制动接管比例越大;与乘客聊天对接管行为影响不显著,看视频和玩手机游戏均会显著延长接管反应时间,增加工作负荷与车辆纵向减速度,玩手机游戏还会显著提升车辆横向加速度。     

Exploring the association between working memory and driving performance in Parkinson's disease

Objective: The aim of this study was to explore whether varying levels of operational and tactical driving task demand differentially affect drivers with Parkinson's disease (PD) and control drivers in their sign recall.

Methods: Study participants aged between 50 and 70 years included a group of drivers with PD (n = 10) and a group of age- and sex-matched control drivers (n = 10). Their performance in a sign recall task was measured using a driving simulator.

Results: Drivers in the control group performed better than drivers with PD in a sign recall task, but this trend was not statistically significant (P =.43). In addition, regardless of group membership, subjects' performance differed according to varying levels of task demand. Performance in the sign recall task was more likely to drop with increasing task demand (P =.03). This difference was significant when the variation in task demand was associated with a cognitive task; that is, when drivers were required to apply the instructions from working memory.

Conclusions: Although the conclusions drawn from this study are tentative, the evidence presented here is encouraging with regard to the use of a driving simulator to examine isolated cognitive functions underlying driving performance in PD. With an understanding of its limitations, such driving simulation in combination with functional assessment batteries measuring physical, visual, and cognitive abilities could comprise one component of a multitiered system to evaluate medical fitness to drive.     

Structural equation model analysis for the evaluation of overall driving performance: A driving simulator study focusing on driver distraction

Objective: The present research relies on 2 main objectives. The first is to investigate whether latent model analysis through a structural equation model can be implemented on driving simulator data in order to define an unobserved driving performance variable. Subsequently, the second objective is to investigate and quantify the effect of several risk factors including distraction sources, driver characteristics, and road and traffic environment on the overall driving performance and not in independent driving performance measures.

Methods: For the scope of the present research, 95 participants from all age groups were asked to drive under different types of distraction (conversation with passenger, cell phone use) in urban and rural road environments with low and high traffic volume in a driving simulator experiment. Then, in the framework of the statistical analysis, a correlation table is presented investigating any of a broad class of statistical relationships between driving simulator measures and a structural equation model is developed in which overall driving performance is estimated as a latent variable based on several individual driving simulator measures.

Results: Results confirm the suitability of the structural equation model and indicate that the selection of the specific performance measures that define overall performance should be guided by a rule of representativeness between the selected variables. Moreover, results indicate that conversation with the passenger was not found to have a statistically significant effect, indicating that drivers do not change their performance while conversing with a passenger compared to undistracted driving. On the other hand, results support the hypothesis that cell phone use has a negative effect on driving performance. Furthermore, regarding driver characteristics, age, gender, and experience all have a significant effect on driving performance, indicating that driver-related characteristics play the most crucial role in overall driving performance.

Conclusions: The findings of this study allow a new approach to the investigation of driving behavior in driving simulator experiments and in general. By the successful implementation of the structural equation model, driving behavior can be assessed in terms of overall performance and not through individual performance measures, which allows an important scientific step forward from piecemeal analyses to a sound combined analysis of the interrelationship between several risk factors and overall driving performance.     

Emergency braking is affected by the use of cruise control

Objective: We compared the differences in the braking response to vehicle collision between an active human emergency braking (control condition) and cruise control (CC) or adaptive cruise control (ACC).

Methods: In 11 male subjects, age 22 to 67 years, we measured the active emergency braking response during manual driving using the accelerator pedal (control condition) or in condition mimicking CC or ACC. In both conditions, we measured the brake reaction time (BRT), delay to produce the peak braking force (PBD), total emergency braking response (BRT + PBD), and peak braking force (PBF). Electromyograms of leg and thigh muscles were recorded during braking. The tonic vibratory response (TVR), Hoffman reflex (HR), and M-waves were recorded in leg muscles to explore the change in sensorimotor control.

Results: No difference in PBF, TVR amplitude, HR latency, and H_max/M_max ratio were found between the control and CC/ACC conditions. On the other hand, BRT and PBD were significantly lengthened in the CC/ACC condition (240 ± 13 ms and 704 ± 70 ms, respectively) compared to control (183 ± 7 ms and 568 ± 36 ms, respectively). BRT increased with the age of participants and the driving experience shortened PBD and increased PBF.

Conclusions: In male subjects, driving in a CC/ACC condition significantly delays the active emergency braking response to vehicle collision. This could result from higher amplitude of leg motion in the CC/ACC condition and/or by the age-related changes in motor control. Car and truck drivers must take account of the significant increase in the braking distance in a CC/ACC condition.     

Assessing fitness to drive—A validation study on patients with mild cognitive impairment

Objectives: There is no consensus yet on how to determine which patients with cognitive impairment are able to drive a car safely and which are not. Recently, a strategy was composed for the assessment of fitness to drive, consisting of clinical interviews, a neuropsychological assessment, and driving simulator rides, which was compared with the outcome of an expert evaluation of an on-road driving assessment. A selection of tests and parameters of the new approach revealed a predictive accuracy of 97.4% for the prediction of practical fitness to drive on an initial sample of patients with Alzheimer's dementia. The aim of the present study was to explore whether the selected variables would be equally predictive (i.e., valid) for a closely related group of patients; that is, patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI).

Methods: Eighteen patients with mild cognitive impairment completed the proposed approach to the measurement of fitness to drive, including clinical interviews, a neuropsychological assessment, and driving simulator rides. The criterion fitness to drive was again assessed by means of an on-road driving evaluation. The predictive validity of the fitness to drive assessment strategy was evaluated by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses.

Results: Twelve patients with MCI (66.7%) passed and 6 patients (33.3%) failed the on-road driving assessment. The previously proposed approach to the measurement of fitness to drive achieved an overall predictive accuracy of 94.4% in these patients. The application of an optimal cutoff resulted in a diagnostic accuracy of 100% sensitivity toward unfit to drive and 83.3% specificity toward fit to drive. Further analyses revealed that the neuropsychological assessment and the driving simulator rides produced rather stable prediction rates, whereas clinical interviews were not significantly predictive for practical fitness to drive in the MCI patient sample.

Conclusions: The selected measures of the previously proposed approach revealed adequate accuracy in identifying fitness to drive in patients with MCI. Furthermore, a combination of neuropsychological test performance and simulated driving behavior proved to be the most valid predictor of practical fitness to drive.     

Improvement of driver active interventions during automated driving by displaying trajectory pointers—A driving simulator study

Abstract

Objective: The handover of vehicle control from automated to manual operation is a critical aspect of interaction between drivers and automated driving systems (ADS). In some cases, it is possible that the ADS may fail to detect an object. In this event, the driver must be aware of the situation and resume control of the vehicle without assistance from the system. Consequently, the driver must fulfill the following 2 main roles while driving: (1) monitor the vehicle trajectory and surrounding traffic environment and (2) actively take over vehicle control if the driver identifies a potential issue along the trajectory. An effective human–machine interface (HMI) is required that enables the driver to fulfill these roles. This article proposes an HMI that constantly indicates the future position of the vehicle.

Methods: This research used the Toyota Dynamic Driving Simulator to evaluate the effect of the proposed HMI and compares the proposed HMI with an HMI that notifies the driver when the vehicle trajectory changes. A total of 48 test subjects were divided into 2 groups of 24: One group used the HMI that constantly indicated the future position of the vehicle and the other group used the HMI that provided information when the vehicle trajectory changed.

The following instructions were given to the test subjects: (1) to not hold the steering wheel and to allow the vehicle to drive itself, (2) to constantly monitor the surrounding traffic environment because the functions of the ADS are limited, and (3) to take over driving if necessary.

The driving simulator experiments were composed of an initial 10-min acclimatization period and a 10-min evaluation period. Approximately 10?min after the start of the evaluation period, a scenario occurred in which the ADS failed to detect an object on the vehicle trajectory, potentially resulting in a collision if the driver did not actively take over control and manually avoid the object.

Results: The collision avoidance rate of the HMI that constantly indicated the future position of the vehicle was higher than that of the HMI that notified the driver of trajectory changes, χ² = 6.38, P < .05. The steering wheel hands-on and steering override timings were also faster with the proposed HMI (t test; P < .05).

Conclusions: This research confirmed that constantly indicating the position of the vehicle several seconds in the future facilitates active driver intervention when an ADS is in operation.     

公路隧道火灾环境人群逃生行为分析及多项Logit建模*

为提高隧道疏散效率,研究环境、社会和个人因素对逃生行为的影响。基于虚拟现实技术从心理学和行为学角度对公路隧道逃生行为及影响因素进行研究,利用Unity 3D建立虚拟场景下的公路隧道场景,通过步行模拟器和ErgoLAB无线生理模块采集步速和心电;应用核密度曲线研究平均心率的变化特性;采用Hermite插值法描述步速的变化趋势。在试验结果的基础上,构建基于多项Logit的逃生行为模型。结果表明:平静状态下,男性的平均心率个体差异性较大,运动状态下,女性的平均心率波动较大;测试者在隧道内遇到障碍物会降低步速,在逐渐深入并穿越人群的过程中,呈现步速加快的特征;逃生行为的MNL模型R2和准确度分别达到87.41%和92%;隧道内障碍物越少,前方人群越多,且能见度越差,人越容易处于恐慌状态,更倾向于跟随他人。研究结果可为火灾环境下的公路隧道人群疏散模型的建立提供参考,对避免人员伤亡和减少财产损失具有实际意义。     

Emotions drive attention: Effects on driver’s behaviour

Music is the favourite activity while driving. However, very few studies have investigated its impact on driving performances. This study was designed to assess the effect of music’s emotional valence on driving behaviour. Happy, sad and neutral music excerpts were alternated with no-music phases while driving in a simulator. Results showed that happy music distracted drivers the most as their mean speed unexpectedly decreased and their lateral control deteriorated. Sad music influenced drivers in a different way as they drove slowly and kept their vehicle in its lane. These findings were discussed within the framework of attentional orienting and emotions.