Costs of the Wastewater Standard in Pig Production in Mexico

The objective of this article is to address the environmental costs of pig farms in the La Piedad region Mexico, through an analysis of the standard on wastewater discharges to national water bodies. Field work was carried out from April to September 1999; a survey was conducted on 23 farms and samples of wastewater were taken on 11 farms. Pig production is the third most important system in Mexican livestock production. Heterogeneity in production systems, dependence on imported inputs (genetics and feed grains), and weak internalization of environmental costs are the main characteristics of pig production in Mexico. With no specific environmental regulations on intensive livestock activities at the municipal or state levels, Mexican Official Standard 001 on wastewater discharges is the only environmental obligation that pig farms must meet. Standard 001 on wastewater contains the maximum permissible limits for 20 contaminant parameters, and is based on a cost-benefit analysis that points to secondary treatment for the regulation’s economic viability. Investment in treatment systems and the fees that pig producers must pay when they fail to comply with the limits stipulated in the regulation, are estimated assessed as an approach to environmental costs. In order to remain within the limits in the standard, pig farms must invest in tertiary treatment, and that makes meeting the standard unaffordable for this sector.     

The Economic Consequences of Alien Plant Invasions: Examples of Impacts and Approaches to Sustainable Management in South Africa

The invasion of natural ecosystems by alien plants is a serious environmental problem that threatens the sustainable use of benefits derived from such ecosytems. Most past studies in this field have focussed on the history, ecology and management of invasive alien species, and little work has been done on the economic aspects and consequences of invasions. This paper reviews what is known of the economic consequences of alien plant invasions in South Africa. These economic arguments have been used to successfully launch the largest environmental management programme in Africa.Ten million hectares of South Africa has been invaded by 180 alien species, but their impacts are not fully understood, although they are undoubtedly significant. The indications are that the total costs of these impacts are substantial. Selected studies show that invasions have reduced the value of fynbos ecosystems by over US$ 11.75 billion; that the total cost of invasion would be about US$ 3.2 billion on the Agulhas Plain alone; that the net present cost of invasion by black wattles amounts to US$ 1.4 billion; that invasions by red water fern have cost US$ 58 million; and that the cost to clear the alien plant invasions in South Africa is around US$ 1.2 billion. These few examples indicate that the economic consequences of invasions are huge.One of the unique aspects of invasive plant control programmes in South Africa has been the ability to leverage further benefits (mainly through employment) for the expensive control programmes from the government's poverty relief budget. This has made it possible to allocate substantial funding to a programme that would otherwise have struggled to obtain significant support. Biological control of invasive species also offers considerable benefits, but is often the subject of debate. We believe that, at least in the case of many invasive alien plant species in South Africa, biological control offers one of the best, and most cost-effective, interventions for addressing the problem.     

Compliance of paper-making plants with regulations on wastewater management in Bac Ninh Province,Vietnam

This study investigated the compliance of paper-making plants in Phong Khe Commune of Bac Ninh Province with regulations on wastewater management. According to existing regulations for wastewater management, all paper plants in Bac Ninh province are required to submit an environmental impact assessment report, pay the wastewater charges, and establish a wastewater treatment system. Many paper-making plants in the commune did not, however, comply with these regulations. Although fines were imposed for non-compliance, only a few plants paid the fines due to weak enforcement. As a result, the current costs of compliance of paper-making plants were very small compared with the full costs of compliance. Type of plant, location of the plant, and number of schooling years of the plant owners were found to be significant factors affecting compliance. The main reasons why the plants did not comply with the regulations were the plant owners’ inadequate understanding of environmental regulations, their lack of financial resources, limited space for treatment system installation, small fines, and the limited capacity of the local environment authorities in enforcing the regulations. The option of wastewater treatment for a group of paper-making plants located close to one another was widely accepted. The study proposes collective action for the adoption of this treatment option and policy recommendations.     

Multi-stakeholder process of co-designing small-scale fisheries policy in South Africa

In 2005, a group of researchers, community-based organizations and lawyers got together with small-scale fishers to launch a class action law suit against the government of South Africa in its allocation system of Individual Transferable Quotas, on the ground that the system was unfair to small-scale fishing communities and threatened their right to practise their livelihoods. This effort resulted in the cabinet adoption of a new small-scale fisheries policy in 2014, with amendments being made to fisheries law (the Marine Living Resource Act 18 of 1998) to accommodate the issues and concerns of small-scale fisheries. Draft regulations and an implementation plan have recently been released, paving the way for the implementation of small-scale fisheries allocations in 2016. These legal and policy shifts are of great significance for small-scale fisheries, both in South Africa and elsewhere, and deserve careful examination. This paper discusses the processes leading to the development of a new small-scale fisheries policy and what has followed since. Specifically, the analysis focuses on a variety of collaborations between scholars from different disciplines; researchers from multiple fields; community practitioners representing diverse professional and community perspectives; and community organizations across local, state, national and international levels. The paper uses a model of change that crosses research and practitioner boundaries based on three key strategies: getting noticed; organizing at scale; and getting a seat at the negotiation table. It also considers the “transdisciplinary” process of involving all relevant actors in strategic, collective, reflection–action–reflection–action “from below”, which was crucial in the co-designing of this small-scale policy formulation in South Africa.     

环境税对高污染行业的影响研究——以湖南邵阳高COD排放行业为例

针对开征环境税对高污染行业的影响,选取湖南省邵阳市为研究区域,以COD排放为例,选择了COD排放量最多的造纸及纸制品业、农副食品加工业、化学原料和化学制品制造业,调查各行业的废水治理成本。通过调查发现行业平均治理成本差别较大,从1.55元/kg到8.11元/kg,调查时点区域排污费收费标准0.7元/kg,相比行业平均治理成本太低,就几乎不具有激励减排的功能,同时也不具备筹集环境治理资金的功能。通过分析湖南邵阳高COD排放行业征收环境税的影响发现,无论基于行业废水平均治理成本制定环境保护税税率,还是考虑边际治理成本提高的情况下制定环境保护税税率,对行业大部分企业利税影响率均小于5%。而且基于行业治理成本征税,有利于淘汰行业中高污染的落后产能,促进行业整体资源优化配置,从长远来看有利于整个行业的发展,对于推动供给侧改革,改善环境质量具有重要意义。 关键词： 环境税;影响分析;高污染行业;供给侧改革     

负外部成本内部化约束下的煤炭开采税费水平研究

煤炭开采中面临严重的代际负外部性和生态环境负外部性问题,分别运用使用者成本法和直接市场法测算了煤炭资源开采中的代际负外部成本和生态环境负外部成本。根据两个负外部成本充分内部化的要求,提出煤炭开采中税费水平的调整目标。以2008年为例,煤炭开采中资源税的征收标准应由目前的从量0.3-5元/t(约从价1%)提至从价10%;开采吨煤应交的生态环境费用标准应由目前的24元/t提至64.23-68.47元/t,即每吨提高40.23-44.47元。综合资源税和生态环境费用的提高幅度,煤炭开采活动中的税费水平应提高约21-22个百分点;通过比较现行税费制度下煤炭开采企业实交的资源税费、生态环境税费总额与企业应交的资源、生态环境费用总额之间的差距,指出目前我国政府对开采企业隐性税费补贴的规模水平,根据价差法计算得出取消此部分税费补贴将可以削减3 653.69万tCO2排放。     

Transport and the environment: a critical review for Africa

This paper discusses the environment as a unit under threat of negative externalities (largely climate change and air pollution) induced by the many sectors albeit with a special reference to transport, bearing in mind that transport is an economic driver. We pay particular reference to the developments in the developed nations in as much as they can provide a framework upon which Africa can draw lessons for public policy and management. While the context may be different, this review is an attempt to inform transport policy and management for environmental sustainability in Africa. The review uses case studies of South Africa, Zimbabwe, Rwanda, Nigeria, Ethiopia and Kenya.     

征税,还是补贴--对当前环境经济政策的反思

现行环境经济政策的目标在于纠正经济主体的外部不经济性，具体是通过税收或产权交易使外部成本内部化，本文称其为环境经济政策的“不对称性”。因为外部效应除了外部不经济以外，还有外部经济，现行的环境经济政策只考虑了前者却完全忽视了后者，只强调了外部成本的内部化却忽视了外部收益也应该内部化。以此为出发点，文章从现行政策的对立面出发，探讨了围绕外部收益内部化制定环境经济政策的必要性和可行性。最后作者分析了目前排污权交易存在的严重问题，并给出了解决问题的方法。     

生态补偿的理论探讨

本文深入探讨了生态补偿的概念和内涵，认为生态补偿是一种使外部成本内部化的环境经济手段，其核心问题包括：谁补偿谁，即补偿支付者和接受者的问题，补偿多少，即补偿强度的问题，以及如何补偿，即补偿渠道的问题，本文认为，生态补偿的实施应以产权的明晰为基础，补偿额度须以资源产权让渡的机会成本为标准，进而对生态补偿机制设计了进行了探讨。     

中国资本回报率:考虑碳减排成本的新核算

对资本回报率进行绿色核算既符合当前绿色发展的新理念,同时也是判断我国经济增长可持续性的重要依据。使用超越对数生产函数估算1960—2014年碳排放的影子价格;利用Hall-Jorgenson租金公式测算剔除碳减排成本的中国资本回报率的动态演变趋势。对中国资本回报率重新估算克服了因忽略碳减排成本而导致的高估,估算结果更加科学可靠。研究结果:(1)中国碳排放的影子价格由1960年的56.34元/t上升到2011年的1651.69/t,根据影子价格计算的碳减排成本占GDP总量的份额年均为31%。(2)不考虑碳减排成本和税收因素的基础资本回报率变动趋势可以划分为三个阶段。1952-1983年为第一阶段,资本回报率在波动中由高位逐步回落。1984—2010年是第二个阶段,基础资本回报率保持平稳。2011年以来是第三个阶段,这一阶段中国的资本回报率呈台阶式下降趋势,特别是2012—2014年,税后的资本回报率已经难以抵补企业投资的机会成本。(3)考虑碳减排成本将导致资本回报率平均下降约12%。其中1960—1975年资本回报率呈下降趋势。1976—2008年资本回报率基本保持稳定,资本回报率平均值为15.2%。2009年以后,资本回报率则表现出逐年下降的趋势,2014年的估算值甚至降为-1%。本文仅考虑了碳减排成本,如果再考虑诸如二氧化硫等废气排放、废水与固废排放的成本后,绿色资本回报率的估算值将更低。建议:在当前的经济形势下,应实施激励企业技术创新以及减税(尤其是生产税)政策遏制资本回报率下降的趋势。另外,需要采取分阶段递增的环境规制政策,逐步实现企业环境外部成本的内部化。     

组织制度创新：生态工业发展的动力

生态产业是模拟生态系统而建立的生产工艺体系,具有较强的外部性。从经济学角度来看,企业实现外部性成本内部化的原因在于生态产业的潜在利益。社会对“生态”的需求隐藏着广阔的市场利益,构成了企业“生态化制度”的激励约束制度。这诱导企业实现了污染治理与原先独立生产方式的“一体化”,其方式是在企业组织外部性环节上增加一些“成本收益核算”的组织,从而完成了外部性内部化的组织制度创新。所以,生态产业是一系列组织制度创新,改变了企业选择空间,从而引导企业进入生态技术和生态化经营的方向上。     

Industrial complexes and their relevance for pulp and paper mills

Advantages and disadvantages of the concept of an industrial complex are discussed. From an environmental standpoint an ideal industrial complex is one containing a group of compatible industrial plants utilizing completely each other's wastes and products as raw materials and manufacturing products with no adverse environmental impact and at a minimum of cost. A typical complex centering about a pulp and papermill is pictured in this paper. This complex produces six products for external sale and four products for internal use. In addition, all major wastes of suspended solids, cooking liquor, fillers, heat and bark are reused within the complex in the manufacture of these products. A literature review evolved typical concentrations of recoverable suspended solids in various process effluents. A mass balance was prepared assuming that the total production of fine paper is 907.2 kg × 10³ (1000 tons) per day. Little or no air or water pollution results from this complex. In addition, it is anticipated that no expensive waste-water treatment plant would be required for this complex. Ten additional practices are described which, when used, will reduce operating costs even further. A continuing study with more precise data on the production requirements for the service plants in the complex will yield a more balanced and realistic system.     

Evaluating the sustainability potential of a white goods refurbishment program

A sustainable national policy on waste electronic and electrical equipment reuse has to ensure an integrated environmental economic and social approach. In this paper, a quantitative model is developed that permits a comparative analysis of re-use and non-re-use scenarios from an environmental and economic perspective. The model demonstrates the importance of considering user consumption profiles and the changing national electricity generation portfolio in determining the best end-of-life strategy, whether it should be reuse or recycling. A case study of Ireland is used to demonstrate the model. From a social perspective, qualitative aspects of reuse, such as the job creation potential and the impact on prosperity for low income families, are also considered. Reuse of white goods, if conducted through social enterprises, will create more employment than an equivalent amount of recycling for those most vulnerable to unemployment. Any environmental and social dividends from re-use can be realized only in the context of an economically sustainable system. This would include such factors as a secure supply of suitable equipment, a competitive cost base and sufficient revenues from sales and other sources in order for the business to survive. In an attempt to examine whether a white goods re-use program could possibly operate in a competitive manner with new appliances, this study has examined examples of comparable businesses operating in the EU as well as interpreting data on consumer demand.     

Economic water management decisions: trade-offs between conflicting objectives in the sub-middle region of the São Francisco watershed

Hydro-economic models can measure the economic effects of different reservoir operating rules, environmental restrictions, maintenance of ecosystems, technical constraints, institutional constraints, land use change, and climate change. To determine the optimal economic water allocation, for its main uses in the sub-middle of the São Francisco River Basin, a hydro-economic optimization model was developed and applied. Demand curves were used rather than fixed requirements for water resources. The results show that operation rules of reservoirs and institutional constraints, such as priorities for human consumption, have high impacts on costs and benefits of the principal economic uses in the study area. Especially, costs of environmental demands, like minimum ecological river flow, have high impacts on the water resource management. Scarcity costs of irrigation users associated with maintaining ecosystems and environmental constraints are particularly significant. The results from this study provide a better understanding of the water trade-offs for future policymaking and efficient water management. Policymaking for the water resources should consider the food-water-energy-environment nexus at a regional scale to minimize environmental and economic cost under water scarcity and land use change.     

协调贸易与环境的最佳途径——环境成本内部化

面对经济发展带来人类福利增加的同时所产生的日益严重的环境污染问题。国际贸易被指责为环境质量下降的原因之一．甚至连国际贸易自由化的原则也受到质疑。围绕贸易与环境可否协调以及如何协调的问题．由环境保护与贸易自由化在理论和实践中的冲突引出贸易与环境之间存在着复杂的相互作用；并通过进一步的经济学分析得出结论：环境问题的根源并不是国际贸易。而是环境成本的外部性造成的市场失灵，而国际贸易只是加重了这种市场失灵。二者可以协调发展。环境成本内部化是解决这一问题的最佳手段。通过环境成本内部化可以达到环境资源的合理配置并最终实现可持续发展。     

Assessing agricultural land-use change in the Midlands region of KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa: application of mixed multinomial logit

On-farm tree cultivation is considered an important strategy to mitigate detrimental environmental impacts of agricultural land-use change (ALUC). In South Africa, however, little is known about farm-level incentives and constraints that govern ALUC decisions among small-scale farmers. To address this knowledge gap, this study employs a mixed multinomial logit model by using a combination of revealed and stated preference data. After correcting for endogeneity, the estimated results show that decisions about ALUC are rationally derived and driven by clear but heterogeneous preferences and trade-offs between crop productivity, food security and labour saving. The results further show that the decision to plant sugarcane is constrained by landholding, whilst farmland afforestation is negatively influenced by household size. Decisions to convert land use are also driven by the behaviour of peer groups and agro-ecological conditions. Based on these findings, important policy implications for sustainable land use are outlined.     

Using Multi-destination ZTCM to Evaluate the Recreational Values of Cultural Sights：an Application to Jiayuguan,China

This study explained the importance of environmental protection in tourism development and illustrated the relationship between recreational resource valuation and environmental consideration. We compare different models of travel cost method and reiterates long-time existing problems of multi-destination and treats of time opportunity cost (TOC). Taking Jiayuguan's cultural sights as an example, we establish an updated method called multi-destination zonal tourism cost method to evaluate the recreational values (RVs) of selected three cultural sights. We divide trip packages of Jiayuguan's tourists into 11 portfolios. Each portfolio can be seen as a separate commodity, and each commodity has its own demand curve. According to demand curves we can calculate consumer surplus (CS) of different portfolios of tourist destinations and later we sum up the total travel costs (including travel expenditure and TOC) and CS to come to the RVs of each portfolio. We then apply suitable proportions to calculate the RVs between different destinations in the portfolio. In the end, we add up all the RVs calculated for the objective destination. Using this method, we draw conclusions that Jiayuguan's RV in 2006 includes national and international values, summing up to 738.4762 million yuan. The tourist expenditure, CS and TOC of Jiayuguan is proportionating 62.96, 32.28 and 4.76%, respectively. This study is also an example of non-market valuation of cultural tourism resources.     

Disinfection of wastewater with peracetic acid: a review

Peracetic acid is a strong disinfectant with a wide spectrum of antimicrobial activity. Due to its bactericidal, virucidal, fungicidal, and sporicidal effectiveness as demonstrated in various industries, the use of peracetic acid as a disinfectant for wastewater effluents has been drawing more attention in recent years. The desirable attributes of peracetic acid for wastewater disinfection are the ease of implementing treatment (without the need for expensive capital investment), broad spectrum of activity even in the presence of heterogeneous organic matter, absence of persistent toxic or mutagenic residuals or by-products, no quenching requirement (i.e., no dechlorination), small dependence on pH, short contact time, and effectiveness for primary and secondary effluents.Major disadvantages associated with peracetic acid disinfection are the increases of organic content in the effluent due to acetic acid (AA) and thus in the potential microbial regrowth (acetic acid is already present in the mixture and is also formed after peracetic acid decomposition). Another drawback to the use of peracetic acid is its high cost, which is partly due to limited production capacity worldwide. However, if the demand for peracetic acid increases, especially from the wastewater industry, the future mass production capacity might also be increased, thus lowering the cost. In such a case, in addition to having environmental advantages, peracetic acid may also become cost-competitive with chlorine.     

成本效益、政策认知与农村居民点整理农户补偿满意度研究

政策执行是政策目标实现的重要环节,政策执行的本质是主体之间考虑利益得失的利益博弈过程,利益推动行为主体执行或违反政策。农户是农村居民点整理的直接利益主体,农户自身利益需求与补偿政策的差异表现为补偿满意度,明晰农户补偿满意度影响因素,对解决农户利益需求缺位,提高农村居民点整理政策执行效率意义重大。本文在理论分析农村居民点整理农户补偿满意度影响因素的基础上,结合典型区域扬州市刘集镇农户补偿满意度调查,应用有序Logit模型,分析个人特征、家庭特征、成本效益及政策认知等因素对农村居民点整理农户补偿满意度的影响。研究结果表明:(1)农户补偿满意度受其自身和家庭禀赋特征影响,家庭劳动力人数较多、非农就业为主的农户,对农村土地的依赖性较低,补偿满意度会相应提升。(2)农户补偿满意度受成本效益因素显著影响,提高耕作便捷度、改善出行交通,会降低通勤成本,增加受益感知,进而提高农户补偿满意度;而日常消费上升、原有宅基地面积较大,会增加农户参与整理的成本投入,降低农户补偿满意度。(3)农户补偿满意度受政策认知因素明显影响,正面的政策制定评价、较高的政策执行满意度及农民收入增加的价值认同,均将提高农户补偿满意度。因此,应合理评估宅基地价值,重视农村居民点整理政策的长期影响评价,综合考量农村居民点整理政策实施前后农户的总成本和综合效益确定合理的补偿标准,以优化利益分配格局。并通过推进配套制度改革完善、规范政策执行机制等措施提高整理区农户的社会福利及政策认同。     

基于“可持续性”要素的比较优势理论拓展

比较优势是不同国家生产同种产品的机会成本差异。传统理论认为,形成比较优势的机会成本主要为生产成本,而"可持续性"是一种代际公共品,耗费"可持续性"要素的机会成本是代际成本,即现在使用某(些)要素所放弃的未来使用之可能带来的纯收益。因此,不同国家的可持续性差异体现为代际成本差异,"可持续性"是塑造一国比较优势的新要素。若中国对外贸易过度依靠当代所具有的劳动力价格低廉和环境规制政策宽松所塑造的劳动力比较优势和环境比较优势,从长期看是不可持续的。通过代际成本内在化,可逐步实现对外贸易发展的短期理性与长期理性的统一。进而言之,中国需要妥善处理贸易增长与各种稀缺要素消耗之间的关系,平衡贸易增长与可持续发展的关系,当今的贸易与未来的贸易需寻求某种总量和结构上的均衡。