The challenges of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution through energy sources: evidence from a panel of developed countries

The objective of the study is to investigate the long-run relationship between climatic factors (i.e., greenhouse gas emissions, agricultural methane emissions, and industrial nitrous oxide emission), air pollution (i.e., carbon dioxide emissions), and energy sources (i.e., nuclear energy; oil, gas, and coal energy; and fossil fuel energy) in the panel of 35 developed countries (including EU-15, new EU member states, G-7, and other countries) over a period of 1975–2012. In order to achieve this objective, the present study uses sophisticated panel econometric techniques including panel cointegration, panel fully modified OLS (FMOLS), and dynamic OLS (DOLS). The results show that there is a long-run relationship between the variables. Nuclear energy reduces greenhouse gases and carbon emissions; however, the other emissions, i.e., agricultural methane emissions and industrial nitrous oxide, are still to increase during the study period. Electricity production from oil, gas, and coal sources increases the greenhouse gases and carbon emissions; however, the intensity to increase emissions is far less than the intensity to increase emissions through fossil fuel. Policies that reduce emissions of greenhouse gases can simultaneously alter emissions of conventional pollutants that have deleterious effects on human health and the environment.     

Review of Singapore's air quality and greenhouse gas emissions: current situation and opportunities

Singapore has many environmental accomplishments to its credit. Accessible data on air quality indicates that all criteria pollutants satisfy both U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and World Health Organization (WHO) air quality standards and guidelines, respectively. The exception is PM2.5 (particles with an aerodynamic diameter < or = 2.5 microm), which is not currently considered a criteria pollutant in Singapore but may potentially be the major local air pollution problem and cause for health concern. Levels of other airborne pollutants as well as their physical and chemical processes associated with local formation, transformation, dispersion, and deposition are not known. According to available emission inventories, Singapore contribution to the total atmospheric pollution and carbon budget at the regional and global scales is small. Emissions per unit gross domestic product (GDP) are low compared with other countries, although Singapore's per-capita GDP and per-capita emissions are among the highest in the world. Some information is available on health effects, but the impacts on the ecosystem and the complex interactions of air pollution and climate change at a regional level are also unknown. This article reviews existing available information on atmospheric pollution and greenhouse gas emissions and proposes a multipollutant approach to greenhouse gas mitigation and local air quality. Singapore, by reducing its per-capita emissions, increasing the availability of information (e.g., through regularly publishing hourly and/or daily PM2.5 concentrations) and developing a research agenda in this area, would likely be seen to be a model of a high-density, livable, and sustainable city in Southeast Asia and other tropical regions worldwide.     

Climatic mapping to identify high-risk areas for Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum leaf blight on eucalypts in mainland South East Asia and around the world

Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum is a pathogen on a wide range of hosts. It affects at least 20 species of eucalypts and is an important causal agent of leaf blight of Eucalyptus camaldulensis in central and southern Vietnam. Results from previous studies and observations of broadscale infection patterns in mainland South East Asia were used to derive simple rules (i.e. mean minimum temperature of coldest month > or =16 degrees C and mean annual precipitation > or =1400 mm) to identify locations which are likely to have a high risk of C. quinqueseptatum leaf blight (CqLB). Climatic mapping programs, which include interpolated climatic data estimated for numerous locations, were used to map these high risk areas in Africa, Australia and Latin America as well as in South East Asia. The predicted high-risk areas included several regions where CqLB has already been reported and the maps generated suggested other areas which may be at risk under present climatic conditions given the presence of C. quinqueseptatum and susceptible hosts. Some simple climate change scenarios were also used to suggest areas in mainland South East Asia which may become vulnerable to CqLB over the next 50 years. It is concluded that climatic mapping programs can assist the broadscale evaluation of risk of CqLB infections, although it is recognised that more detailed models and survey information are also needed.     

A contemporary landscape of air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions leads to inevitable phenomena of low birthweight

The objective of the study is to empirically examine the air pollution, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and low birth weight in Pakistan through the cointegration and error correction model over a 36-year time period, i.e., between 1975 and 2012. The study employed the Johansen cointegration technique to estimate the long-run relationship between the variables, while an error correction model was used to determine the short-run dynamics of the system. The study was limited to the following variables, including carbon dioxide emissions, methane emissions, nitrous oxide emissions, GHG emissions, and low birth weight in order to manage robust data analysis. The results reveal that air pollution and GHG emissions significantly affects the low birth weight in Pakistan. In the long run, carbon dioxide emissions act as a strong contributor for low birth weight, as the coefficient value indicates there is a more elastic relationship (i.e., ?1.214, p?p?p?相似文献   

Quantifying anthropogenic threats to orchids using the IUCN Red List

Orchids are diverse, occur in a wide range of habitats and dominate threatened species lists, but which orchids are threatened, where and by what? Using the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List, we assessed the range and diversity of threats to orchids globally including identifying four threat syndromes: (1) terrestrial orchids in forests that are endemic to a country and threatened by illegal collecting; (2) orchids threatened by climate change, pollution, transportation and disturbance/development for tourism, and recreation activities, often in East Asia; (3) epiphytic orchids in Sub-Saharan Africa including Madagascar with diverse threats; and (4) South and Southeast Asia orchids threatened by land clearing for shifting agriculture. Despite limitations in the Red List data, the results highlight how conservation efforts can focus on clusters of co-occurring threats in regions while remaining aware of the trifecta of broad threats from plant collecting, land clearing and climate change.     

Intercontinental transport of aerosols and photochemical oxidants from Asia and its consequences

The intercontinental transport of aerosols and photochemical oxidants from Asia is a crucial issue for air quality concerns in countries downwind of the significant emissions and concentrations of pollutants occurring in this important region of the world. Since the lifetimes of some important pollutants are long enough to be transported over long distance in the troposphere, regional control strategies for air pollution in downwind countries might be ineffective without considering the effects of long-range transport of pollutants from Asia. Field campaigns provide strong evidence for the intercontinental transport of Asian pollutants. They, together with ground-based observations and model simulations, show that the air quality over parts of North America is being affected by the pollutants transported from Asia. This paper examines the current understanding of the intercontinental transport of gases and aerosols from Asia and resulting effects on air quality, and on the regional and global climate system.     

Review of Singapore's air quality and greenhouse gas emissions: Current situation and opportunities

Singapore has many environmental accomplishments to its credit. Accessible data on air quality indicates that all criteria pollutants satisfy both U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and World Health Organization (WHO) air quality standards and guidelines, respectively. The exception is PM_2.5 (particles with an aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 μm), which is not currently considered a criteria pollutant in Singapore but may potentially be the major local air pollution problem and cause for health concern. Levels of other airborne pollutants as well as their physical and chemical processes associated with local formation, transformation, dispersion, and deposition are not known. According to available emission inventories, Singapore's contribution to the total atmospheric pollution and carbon budget at the regional and global scales is small. Emissions per unit gross domestic product (GDP) are low compared with other countries, although Singapore's per-capita GDP and per-capita emissions are among the highest in the world. Some information is available on health effects, but the impacts on the ecosystem and the complex interactions of air pollution and climate change at a regional level are also unknown. This article reviews existing available information on atmospheric pollution and greenhouse gas emissions and proposes a multipollutant approach to greenhouse gas mitigation and local air quality. Singapore, by reducing its per-capita emissions, increasing the availability of information (e.g., through regularly publishing hourly and/or daily PM_2.5 concentrations) and developing a research agenda in this area, would likely be seen to be a model of a high-density, livable, and sustainable city in Southeast Asia and other tropical regions worldwide.

Implications Singapore is widely recognized for its environmental achievements and often cited as a model of a high-density, livable, and sustainable city. This article reviews available information with the aim to provide a reference for future scientific research of strategic relevance for Singapore's air quality and greenhouse gas mitigation management under a multipollutant framework. However, the limited publicly accessible data and little scientific information prevent a comprehensive assessment of the local air quality and greenhouse gas emissions. Singapore's dynamic economy and strong profile in advanced science and technological innovation have the potential to enhance the research agenda in this area, which is not yet well developed in tropical cities.     

Global Emissions of Nitrogen and Sulfur Oxides from 1860 to 1980

Statistical models have been developed that relate the rate of emissions of a pollutant to the rate of fuel consumption. These relations may be used to estimate emissions in other regions, or at other times, if fuel consumption data are available. This approach has been used to estimate global emissions of nitrogen and sulfur oxides in fossil fuel combustion at ten year intervals from 1860 to 1980. Emissions from each of the populated continents, i.e., North America, South America, Asia, Europe, Africa and Oceania from 1930 to 1980 are also presented. When averaged globally over the 1860 to 1980 period, sulfur emissions increased at the rate of 2.9 percent per year and the nitrogen emissions at the rate of 3.4 percent per year. The ratio of global sulfur emissions to nitrogen emissions has declined steadily; it was nearly 5 in the 19th century and became 3 by 1980. After the second world war, the most rapid increases in emissions have been registered in Asia, South America, and Africa.     

Air pollution reduction via use of green energy sources for electricity and hydrogen production

The implementation of renewable wind and solar energy sources instead of fossil fuels to produce such energy carriers as electricity and hydrogen facilitates reductions in air pollution emissions. Unlike from traditional fossil fuel technologies, air pollution emissions from renewable technologies are associated mainly with the construction of facilities. With present costs of wind and solar electricity, it is shown that, when electricity from renewable sources replaces electricity from natural gas, the cost of air pollution emission abatement is more than ten times less than the cost if hydrogen from renewable sources replaces hydrogen produced from natural gas. When renewable-based hydrogen is used instead of gasoline in a fuel cell vehicle, the cost of air pollution emissions reduction approaches the same value as for renewable-based electricity only if the fuel cell vehicle efficiency exceeds significantly (i.e., by about two times) that of an internal combustion vehicle. The results provide the basis for a useful approach to an optimal strategy for air pollution mitigation.     

Accumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) on the spider webs in the vicinity of road traffic emissions

Studies focused on the possible use of spider webs as environmental pollution indicators. This was a first time ever attempt to use webs as indicators of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollution. The aim of the study was (a) to evaluate whether webs are able to accumulate PM-associated road traffic emissions and be analyzed for organic toxics such as PAHs, (b) to assess if the distance from emission sources could have an influence on the accumulation level of pollutants, and (c) to determine types of pollution sources responsible for a structure of monitoring data set. Webs of four species from the family Agelenidae were sampled for PAHs presence. Data from vehicle traffic sites (i.e., road tunnel, arterial surface road, underground parking) and from railway traffic sites (i.e., two railway viaducts) in the city of Wroclaw (Southwest of Poland) showed a significantly higher mean concentrations of PAHs than the reference site 1 (municipal water supply works). We also found a significant differences at sites differed by the distance from emission sources. The result of PCA analysis suggested three important sources of pollution. We conclude that spider webs despite of some limitations proved useful indicators of road traffic emissions; they could be even more reliable compared to use of bioindicators whose activity is often limited by a lack of water and sun.     

Regional air pollution at a turning point

The control of transboundary air pollution in Europe has been successful. Emissions of many key pollutants are decreasing and there are signs of improvements in damaged ecosystems. The strategies under development within the CAFE programme under the European Commission and the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP), aim to take regional air pollution control a large step further, in particular with respect to small particles. In this paper we highlight the new strategies but look primarily at socioeconomic trends and climate change feedbacks that may have a significant influence on the outcome of the strategies and which so far have not been considered. In particular, we point out the influence on air quality of increased summer temperatures in Europe and of increasing emissions including international shipping, outside of Europe. Taken together the further emissions reductions in Europe and the increasing background pollution, slowly cause a greying of the Northern Hemisphere troposphere rather than the traditional picture of dominant emissions in Europe and North America ('black') with much lower emission intensities elsewhere ('white'). A hemispheric approach to further combat air pollution will become necessary in Europe and elsewhere.     

The atmosphere in England and Wales: an environmental management review

Air pollution in England and Wales is reviewed to identify priorities for management and research. The main human drivers of emissions are the production and consumption of energy and materials, disposal of waste, transport and land use. Pollutants are assigned to seven types: (i) nuisance (e.g. odour, noise), (ii) toxic, (iii) acidifying/eutrophying, (iv) photochemical oxidant precursors, (v) radionuclides, (vi) stratospheric ozone depleting substances and (vii) greenhouse gases. Dominant trends in activity and emissions are highlighted. New technologies and fuels are partially decoupling emissions from activity in power generation, industry and transport, but the gains are being offset by growth in demand and output in all major sectors. The evidence for impacts on human health, the atmosphere and other environmental systems is discussed. Priorities for management are climate change, ground-level ozone, acidification and eutrophication by nitrogen, urban air quality and nuisance pollution. Management responses require greater foresight, technological improvements and new instruments to control polluting activities. More scientific information is needed on the impacts on human health, quality of life and ecosystems, and on the links between different types of pollution. The policy challenges include generating energy sustainably, reducing transport impacts, devising effective economic instruments, improving societal awareness and contributing to cleaner global development.     

Air pollution,greenhouse gases and climate change: Global and regional perspectives

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) warm the surface and the atmosphere with significant implications for rainfall, retreat of glaciers and sea ice, sea level, among other factors. About 30 years ago, it was recognized that the increase in tropospheric ozone from air pollution (NO_x, CO and others) is an important greenhouse forcing term. In addition, the recognition of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on stratospheric ozone and its climate effects linked chemistry and climate strongly. What is less recognized, however, is a comparably major global problem dealing with air pollution. Until about ten years ago, air pollution was thought to be just an urban or a local problem. But new data have revealed that air pollution is transported across continents and ocean basins due to fast long-range transport, resulting in trans-oceanic and trans-continental plumes of atmospheric brown clouds (ABCs) containing sub micron size particles, i.e., aerosols. ABCs intercept sunlight by absorbing as well as reflecting it, both of which lead to a large surface dimming. The dimming effect is enhanced further because aerosols may nucleate more cloud droplets, which makes the clouds reflect more solar radiation. The dimming has a surface cooling effect and decreases evaporation of moisture from the surface, thus slows down the hydrological cycle. On the other hand, absorption of solar radiation by black carbon and some organics increase atmospheric heating and tend to amplify greenhouse warming of the atmosphere.ABCs are concentrated in regional and mega-city hot spots. Long-range transport from these hot spots causes widespread plumes over the adjacent oceans. Such a pattern of regionally concentrated surface dimming and atmospheric solar heating, accompanied by widespread dimming over the oceans, gives rise to large regional effects. Only during the last decade, we have begun to comprehend the surprisingly large regional impacts. In S. Asia and N. Africa, the large north-south gradient in the ABC dimming has altered both the north-south gradients in sea surface temperatures and land–ocean contrast in surface temperatures, which in turn slow down the monsoon circulation and decrease rainfall over the continents. On the other hand, heating by black carbon warms the atmosphere at elevated levels from 2 to 6 km, where most tropical glaciers are located, thus strengthening the effect of GHGs on retreat of snow packs and glaciers in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya-Tibetan glaciers.Globally, the surface cooling effect of ABCs may have masked as much 47% of the global warming by greenhouse gases, with an uncertainty range of 20–80%. This presents a dilemma since efforts to curb air pollution may unmask the ABC cooling effect and enhance the surface warming. Thus efforts to reduce GHGs and air pollution should be done under one common framework. The uncertainties in our understanding of the ABC effects are large, but we are discovering new ways in which human activities are changing the climate and the environment.     

The negative impacts of human activities in the eastern African region: an international waters perspective

The complex interactions between human activities and the environment at the interface of land and water is analyzed with a focus on the Somali Current (East Africa), and Indian Ocean Island States, subregions of the Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA). These 2 subregions contain some of the world's richest ecosystems, including the high biodiversity forests of Madagascar and the diverse coastal habitats of the eastern African coast. These ecosystems support local communities and national and regional economies. Current and future degradation of these systems, from water basins to continental shelves, affects the livelihoods and sustainability of the countries in the region, and long-term efforts to reduce poverty. The assessments determined that pollution and climate change are the primary environmental and social concerns in the Islands of the Indian Ocean, while freshwater shortage and unsustainable exploitation of fisheries and other living resources are the primary environmental and social concerns in East Africa. The GIWA approach, through assessing root causes of environmental concerns, enables the development of policy approaches for mitigating environmental degradation. This paper explores policy frameworks for mitigating the impacts, and reducing the drivers, of 3 environmental concerns--freshwater shortage; solid waste pollution; and climate change--addressing social and institutional causes and effects, and linking the subregions to broad international frameworks. The common theme in all 3 case studies is the need to develop integrated ecosystem and international waters policies, and mechanisms to manage conflicting interests and to limit threats to natural processes.     

Anthropogenic NOx emissions in Asia in the period 1990–2020

Nitrogen oxides emissions in Asia during the period 1990–2020 due to anthropogenic activity are presented. These estimates are based on the RAINS-ASIA methodology (Foell et al., 1995, Acid Rain and Emission Reduction in Asia, World Bank), which includes a dynamic model for energy forecasts, and information on 6 energy sectors and 9 fuel types. The energy forecasts are combined with process emission factors to yield NO_x emission estimates at the country level, the regional level, and on a 1 degree by 1 degree grid. In 1990 the total NO_x emissions are estimated to be ∼19 Tg NO₂, with China (43%), India (18%) and Japan (13%) accounting for 75% of the total. Emissions by fuel are dominated by burning of hard coal and emissions by economic activity are dominated by the power, transport, and industrial sectors. These new estimates of NO_x emissions are compared with those published by Hameed and Dignon (1988, Atmospheric Environment 22, 441–449) and Akimoto and Narita (1994, Atmospheric Environment 28, 213–225). Future emissions under a no-further-control scenario are also presented. During the period 1990–2020 the NO_x emissions increase by 350%, to ∼86 Tg NO₂. The increase in NO_x emissions by sector and end-use varies between countries, but in all countries this increase is strongest in the power and transport sectors. These results highlight the dynamic nature of energy use in Asia, and the need to take the rapid growth in NO_x emissions in Asia into account in studies of air pollution and atmospheric chemistry.     

Physiological response of the lichen Phaeophyscia hispidula (Ach.) Essl., to the urban environment of Pauri and Srinagar (Garhwal), Himalayas, India

The present study was designed with an aim to observe the effect of increasing urbanization and traffic activity on the physiology of a foliose lichen, Phaeophyscia hispidula (Ach.) Essl., collected from 13 different localities, growing in their natural habitat, in Pauri and Srinagar, two cities in the Himalayas. Six parameters i.e., Chl. a, Chl. b, total pigment, chlorophyll degradation, carotenoid and total protein content, proved the most useful to assess air pollution, were measured. Chlorophyll content and protein content are an efficient parameter to measure the air quality of a region. The study indicates that P. hispidula is pollution tolerant (adaptation) and able to withstand local emissions from vehicle exhausts.     

Local Arctic air pollution: Sources and impacts

Local emissions of Arctic air pollutants and their impacts on climate, ecosystems and health are poorly understood. Future increases due to Arctic warming or economic drivers may put additional pressures on the fragile Arctic environment already affected by mid-latitude air pollution. Aircraft data were collected, for the first time, downwind of shipping and petroleum extraction facilities in the European Arctic. Data analysis reveals discrepancies compared to commonly used emission inventories, highlighting missing emissions (e.g. drilling rigs) and the intermittent nature of certain emissions (e.g. flaring, shipping). Present-day shipping/petroleum extraction emissions already appear to be impacting pollutant (ozone, aerosols) levels along the Norwegian coast and are estimated to cool and warm the Arctic climate, respectively. Future increases in shipping may lead to short-term (long-term) warming (cooling) due to reduced sulphur (CO₂) emissions, and be detrimental to regional air quality (ozone). Further quantification of local Arctic emission impacts is needed.     

The Development of Air Contaminant Emission Tables for Nonprocess Emissions

In New York State, the calculation of air contaminant emissions from a variety of sources is an essential part of comprehensive air pollution studies. The tables used to calculate emissions were obtained from an extensive literature search and modified to apply to New York State conditions. For example, sulfur dioxide emission factors for coal were selected to reflect the average sulfur content of the coal sold in New York State. Since the literature contains a wide array of emission factors, it was necessary to evaluate the factors and select those which would be most appropriate for the techniques used in conducting the comprehensive studies in New York State. This paper does not present the emission tables themselves but does outline the development of such tables for use in nonprocess calculations, i.e., combustion for heat and power of bituminous and anthracite coal, distillate and residual oil, natural and bottled gas; combustion of gasoline and diesel in internal combustion engines; burning of refuse in dumps and incinerators; and evaporation of gasoline from marketing operations.     

Monitoring atmospheric pollutants in the biosphere reserve Wienerwald by a combined approach of biomonitoring methods and technical measurements

In this study a combined approach of bioindication results correlated with an extensive set of data on air pollution and climate was used to assess the pollution status of the Man and Biosphere Reserve Wienerwald (Austria). Bryophytes served as impact indicators (via the Index of Atmospheric Purity-method IAP) at 30 sites as well as accumulation monitors for airborne trace elements (Al, Pb, V, S, Zn, Fe, Cu, Cr, Ni, Co, Mo, Cd, As, Sb and 16 EPA-PAHs) at 10 sites within the reserve. The results of these bioindication methods were subsequently correlated with further pollution (NO(2), SO(2) and dust) and climate data (precipitation, temperature and humidity). The findings obtained clearly indicate the following: Bryophyte distribution is solely influenced by the status of air quality, without interference by climatic or site-related factors, which is in contrast to several previous investigations. IAP-values correlated significantly with NO(2) (0.553; P=0.004), SO(2) winter values (0.511; P=0.013) and PM10 (dust) (0.561; P=0.013). The results obtained via chemical analyses revealed a strong correlation with data derived from the IAP methodology. In terms of the overall air quality within the biosphere reserve Wienerwald, the north-eastern part appears to be the most affected one with a most likely pollution contribution emitted by the capital city Vienna, agriculture and neighbouring countries.     

Do renewable energies contribute to enhancing environmental quality in Eastern Africa?

East Africa has enormous renewable energy potential, but only a small portion of it has been exploited, and little is known on its role in improving environmental quality. Thus, this study empirically examines the impact of renewable energy on the environment using ecological footprint (EF; positive indicator) and CO₂ emissions (negative indicator) as proxy indicators for environmental quality in a panel of ten East African countries from 1990 to 2015. These indicators were chosen due to their potential impact in the environment. The work used the pooled mean group (PMG) as the main panel estimator to determine the impact while controlling non-renewable energy consumption, GDP per capita, and foreign direct investment (FDI). PMG has been used as it forces the long-run coefficients to be equal across all panel groups. The findings show that in the long run, there is a significant negative relationship between CO₂ emissions and renewable energy consumption, as well as a significant positive relationship (with a low impact) between EF and renewable energy consumption, suggesting that renewable energy use enhances the area’s environmental quality. Also, results indicate that non-renewable energy use degrades environmental quality in both metrics, whereas GDP degrades environmental quality through CO₂ emissions and improves environmental quality through EF. This requires East African countries to focus a higher emphasis on accessible renewable energy sources to achieve quick and sustainable economic growth and minimize environmental effects. To accomplish this, strategic policies and legislation, as well as the promotion of green technology, are required.