Corporate Social Responsibility in the extractive industries: Experiences from developing countries

This paper introduces a special issue on ‘Corporate Social Responsibility in the extractive industries: experiences from developing countries’. Drawing upon case study analysis from Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, the papers in this issue broaden understanding of how multinational mining and oil and gas companies have embraced the CSR challenge and responded to criticisms of their performance in developing countries. This paper provides an introduction to the debate on CSR in the extractive industries in developing countries, reviewing the key issues examined on this subject to date.     

Seabed resources and international law

This article outlines the problems related to the exploitation and allocation of undersea resources. The nature and accessibility of undersea petroleum supplies and metalliferous nodules are described in terms of the existing and prospective future economic constraints. Since the majority of such resources lie outside national jurisdictions, their ownership has recently become a major source of international conflict. The character of that conflict is explained, and the prospective solutions under international law are identified. Unilateral action on the part of countries possessing the requisite technologies to exploit these resources is viewed as the most probable near-term outlook, even though it may not satisfy very many aspects of international equity.     

The Role of International Agencies in Financing Water Resource Development Projects

In 1977 the goal of safe drinking water and sanitation for all people of the world by 1990 was set out by the United Nations Water Conference in Mar del Plata, Argentina. Estimates of the financial resources needed by developing countries to meet these goals are presented. It is estimated that 60% of the resources needed will have to come from external sources, and the role of international agencies in meeting these requirements is explored. In general progress has been good, but the level of funding has not been sufficient to meet these goals in their entirety.     

The World Bank and Petroleum Development in the Third World

The issues that arise between state sovereignty over natural resources and the desire of the State to finance the development of its petroleum resources from external sources are briefly examined. The problem is particularly acute for the least developed countries. It is suggested that financing obtained from international agencies such as the World Bank, may provide a means for such countries to maintain full sovereignty over their petroleum resources and at the same time obtain needed financing. To this end the petroleum lending activities of the World Bank are examined both in terms of policy and in terms of the financial resources available. A special lending facility to help underwrite financial risk of petroleum exploration in the least developed countries is proposed.     

新疆水电资源开发与清洁发展机制(CDM)项目开展

新疆水利资源丰富,具有开发水电的天然资源优势。清洁发展机制是建立在《京都议定书》下的国际合作机制。发达国家和发展中国家可以通过清洁发展机制,实现温室气体的减排和可持续发展。结合目前水电开发面临的实际形势,并根据我区能源开发总体规划布局,对水电CDM项目开发活动进行统筹协调,进一步促进新疆水电的快速、有序、均衡、协调发展。     

A general agreement on commodity organization : A ‘GATT for primary commodities’

Having reponded to various crises since the Paris Sugar Convention 1864, the process of international commodity organization is now recognized as a positive means of securing expansion of world trade and of bringing about development in producing countries. But these objectives necessitate multi-dimensional measures. The supply-management techniques, hitherto the pivot of international commodity agreements, have proved to be inadequate. It is argued in this article that the trade and development objectives can be better achieved by the provision of varied measures; that a ‘GATT for primary commodities’ is among such measures; and that such an organization does not negate, but supplements, the existing system.     

Would commodity market stabilization agreements redistribute economic resources to developing countries?: The case of copper

There has been strong pressure, particularly within UNCTAD, for international stabilization agreements for the major commodity markets, in order to stabilize prices and to redistribute resources towards the developing country producers. However, no empirical evidence on the feasibility or desirability of these proposals has appeared. As an illustration of the possibilities, this paper makes estimates of the stabilizing power and costs of buffer stock interventions in the world copper market. We find that price and revenue stabilization is technically possible; but that to generate income transfers to the developing countries is prohibitively expensive and creates a further problem of redistribution among developing country producers.     

NIEO revisited: A new international environmental order in the making

In the past, most of the attempts to improve the situation of the developing countries have focused on economic policy, on the conditions of international trade, on aid and direct investment. A debate on a New International Economic Order (NIEO) was launched in the 1970s (c.f. Tinbergen, 1976)—and largely failed (c.f. Simonis, 1989). This paper shows that environmental policy could be a more effective lever for improving the lot of the developing countries; the near future may see the evolution of a new international environmental order which is likely to better link environmental protection and economic development.     

Natural resources and the tenth five year plan: Hopes and realities

The tenth Soviet five year plan projected increased extraction of mineral resources and improved utilization of those resources. Through 1976 and 1977, actual production closely parallelled planned production in most resources. Even so, 1978 was a critical year for Soviet resources production, and may determine whether the goals of the tenth plan are achieved. Other areas of Soviet resource policy which are discussed include the drive to accelerate Siberian and far eastern development, the effort to improve capital and manpower efficiency, the attempt to improve resource use and reduce non-essential consumption, and the effort to import advanced extractive technology and capital. The article concludes with the observation that with the difficulties facing the Soviet extractive industries, the tenth plan may be the last which projects and strives for a rapid expansion of the Soviet resource base.     

Technological Innovation and Developmental Strategies for Sustainable Management of Aquatic Resources in Developing Countries

Sustainable use and allocation of aquatic resources including water resources require implementation of ecologically appropriate technologies, efficient and relevant to local needs. Despite the numerous international agreements and provisions on transfer of technology, this has not been successfully achieved in developing countries. While reviewing some challenges to technological innovations and developments (TID), this paper analyzes five TID strategic approaches centered on grassroots technology development and provision of localized capacity for sustainable aquatic resources management. Three case studies provide examples of successful implementation of these strategies. Success requires the provision of localized capacity to manage technology through knowledge empowerment in rural communities situated within a framework of clear national priorities for technology development.     

Resource diplomacy in a Canadian perspective

Concern for the supply of resources—renewable and nonrenewable—has been evident during the 1970s. All countries seek to increase the economic and social returns from the exploration, processing and distribution of minerals so as to improve the quality of life of their people. Proper resource management is imperative because of the interdependence of the mineral sector with other leading sectors of the economy and also because of the importance of minerals in the web of international economics. This paper emphasises the significance of recent international events as they affect the mineral industry and the Canadian position in the ever changing world of resource diplomacy.     

Joint institutional arrangements for addressing transboundary water resources issues—lessons for the GEF

The lofty goals of the 1992 Earth Summit regarding sustainable development will not be achieved without major improvements in the management of transboundary water resources. This paper describes the serious nature of water-related conflicts and environmental damage associated with degradation of marine ecosystems, coastal zones, and shared surface/groundwater systems. Traditional approaches such as international conventions, watercourse agreements with basin organizations, and arbitration have generally fallen short of their objectives. This article suggests that a middle ground centered on multicountry institutional arrangements for joint fact finding, evaluation, and problem resolution may be a more productive approach over the short term to achieve sustainable development. The experience of the International Joint Commission (Canada and U.S.) is described as a way of providing a neutral ground for building trust among nations, for 'leveling the playing field' among small and large countries, and for providing mechanisms for countries to work jointly toward sustainable development of their shared resources without relinquishing their sovereignty. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is playing a catalytic role in assisting countries to address transboundary water resources issues. The paper describes GEF's Operational Strategy and discusses the implications of joint institutional arrangements for the international waters focal area. Given that the environmental security of many nations rests on improved transboundary cooperation, the GEF provides a pragmatic opportunity for countries to cooperatively address these pressing problems.     

主要发达国家碳达峰碳中和的实践经验及对中国的启示

气候变化问题是人类社会共同面临的重大挑战，关系到人类生存和各国利益。推进碳达峰碳中和是中国的一项重大战略决策，是负责任大国对国际社会的庄严承诺，也是推动高质量发展的内在要求。本文归纳分析欧盟、美国、日本、韩国、德国、英国等主要发达经济体碳达峰的经济社会特征、碳中和的路径共识，系统梳理推动实现碳达峰碳中和的经验举措，对比分析中国国内进展和差距，并提出重点借鉴的国际经验与启示。研究发现，中国已经逐步具备实现碳达峰国家的基本特征，但相比发达国家，在降碳效果核算评估、低碳安全高效能源系统构建、碳价格传导机制设计、低碳技术创新和新业态模式打造、法规制度系统化构建等方面仍有差距，仍需加强政策驱动和重点国际经验借鉴，进一步优化“双碳”目标评估指标体系，将构建清洁、低碳、安全、高效能源系统作为能源生产和消费革命的主要目标，有序推进碳排放权交易市场建设和能源资源市场化价格调控，强化绿色低碳技术的研发创新，加快构建形成系统性推动“双碳”目标的法规体系。     

External benefits of environmental regulation: Resource recovery and the utilisation of effluents

Summary Since 1977, stringent environmental regulation has been progressively imposed on Malaysia's most polluting industry, the palm oil mills. The impact of the regulation on international trade and producer welfare has been quite small compared to the relative benefits to society in terms of changes in the levels of dissolved oxygen in the industrial effluents. External benefits from pollution abatement have been derived. This paper presents a preliminary evaluation of the derived benefits which have a long- term potential of recycling valuable resources while maintaining competitiveness in the international palm oil trade.Dr Khalid Abdul Rahim is a member of faculty in the Department of Natural Resource Economics at the Universiti Pertanian Malaysia. Wan Mustafa Wan Ali is a research assistant in the Department. This paper is based on part of the "Intensification of Research in Priority Areas" (IRPA) project 1991–95, funded by the Government of Malaysia.     

Soviet resources policy: Foreign investment,resources and the tenth five-year plan

The author examines the plans for natural resources embodied in the USSR's 10th five year plan, 1975–1980. Problems of capital and manpower have forced the USSR to curtail the very ambitious resources programmes which were mooted in the early 1960s. Foreign investment is seen as one possible means of raising production and agreements have been signed with Western companies for over 50 development projects. More important still, the countries of Comecon have invested heavily in Soviet natural resources.     

Copper in India: Present and future outlook

The availability of mineral resources plays an important role in India's national economy. Copper, one of the important non-ferrous metals, has various industrial uses and demand for it is increasing in India where the inventory and production of copper, though not comparable with developed countries, shows an impressive growth rate, particularly during the last decade. With an increasing rate of industrial production envisaged in future plans copper consumption is expected to rise. Logistic curves have been used to study the potential long-term production capability under the dynamic concept of reserves and resources, with curves drawn for various estimates of total available resources. The production figures shown are not final and are subject to change due to a number of factors. This approach merely provides a method for projecting trends in future production.     

Antartic minerals: A common heritage approach

The potential value of Antarctic mineral resources, including petroleum, has already spurred efforts by the Antarctic Treaty powers to establish a legal and technical regime for minerals. Management and control of Antarctic minerals need not, however, be left to the countries that have staked territorial claims or otherwise been active in Antarctica. Possible mineral regimes include open access (or first-come, first-served) and a variety of multilateral and international approaches. This article suggests that a common heritage approach would be most suitable for Antarctica and, despite opposition to such an approach among the Antarctic Treaty powers, would be a practical solution to the mineral development issue. The time for international organizations to act to establish such a common heritage regime is, however, growing short.     

综合利用江油电厂粉煤灰的研究(二)——从自粉化料中提取氧化铝

本文利用正交设计研究了浸取剂浓度、浸取温度、浸取时间、料液比对从自粉化料中提取氧化铝的影响;找出了影响提取氧化铝的主要因素;推荐了从自粉化料中提取氧化铝的最佳条件。     

Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in the Upper Blue Nile River Basin,Ethiopia1

Kim, Ungtae and Jagath J. Kaluarachchi, 2009. Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in the Upper Blue Nile River Basin, Ethiopia. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 45(6):1361‐1378. Abstract: Climate change affects water resources availability of international river basins that are vulnerable to runoff variability of upstream countries especially with increasing water demands. The upper Blue Nile River Basin is a good example because its downstream countries, Sudan and Egypt, depend solely on Nile waters for their economic development. In this study, the impacts of climate change on both hydrology and water resources operations were analyzed using the outcomes of six different general circulation models (GCMs) for the 2050s. The outcomes of these six GCMs were weighted to provide average future changes. Hydrologic sensitivity, flow statistics, a drought index, and water resources assessment indices (reliability, resiliency, and vulnerability) were used as quantitative indicators. The changes in outflows from the two proposed dams (Karadobi and Border) to downstream countries were also assessed. Given the uncertainty of different GCMs, the simulation results of the weighted scenario suggested mild increases in hydrologic variables (precipitation, temperature, potential evapotranspiration, and runoff) across the study area. The weighted scenario also showed that low‐flow statistics and the reliability of streamflows are increased and severe drought events are decreased mainly due to increased precipitation. Joint dam operation performed better than single dam operation in terms of both hydropower generation and mean annual storage without affecting the runoff volume to downstream countries, but enhancing flow characteristics and the robustness of streamflows. This study provides useful information to decision makers for the planning and management of future water resources of the study area and downstream countries.     

Water, environment and development

This paper for the most part constitutes the address which was made to the Consortium for International Development at their recent Presidential Symposium at Colorado State University on 30 July 1992. It raises some of the global issues in water resources development and management which are likely to confront the international community in the 1990s and beyond. The issues pose the challenge to institutions involved in the water resources field in both developed and developing countries.