Pharmaceuticals in soils of lower income countries: Physico-chemical fate and risks from wastewater irrigation

Population growth, increasing affluence, and greater access to medicines have led to an increase in active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) entering sewerage networks. In areas with high wastewater reuse, residual quantities of APIs may enter soils via irrigation with treated, partially treated, or untreated wastewater and sludge. Wastewater used for irrigation is currently not included in chemical environmental risk assessments and requires further consideration in areas with high water reuse. This study critically assesses the contemporary understanding of the occurrence and fate of APIs in soils of low and lower-middle income countries (LLMIC) in order to contribute to the development of risk assessments for APIs in LLMIC. The physico-chemical properties of APIs and soils vary greatly globally, impacting on API fate, bioaccumulation and toxicity. The impact of pH, clay and organic matter on the fate of organic ionisable compounds is discussed in detail. This study highlights the occurrence and the partitioning and degradation coefficients for APIs in soil:porewater systems, API usage data in LLMICS and removal rates (where used) within sewage treatment plants as key areas where data are required in order to inform robust environmental risk assessment methodologies.     

Beyond the medicine cabinet: an analysis of where and why medications accumulate

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) from medications can enter the environment as trace contaminants, at individual concentrations generally below a part per billion (microg/L). APIs enter the environment primarily via the discharge of raw and treated sewage. Residues of unmetabolized APIs from parenteral and enteral drugs are excreted in feces and urine, and topically applied medications are washed from skin during bathing. These trace residues may pose risks for aquatic life and cause concern with regard to subsequent human exposure. APIs also enter the environment from the disposal of unwanted medications directly to sewers and trash. The relative significance of this route compared with excretion and bathing is poorly understood and has been subject to much speculation. Two major aspects of uncertainty exist: the percentage of any particular API in the environment originating from disposal is unknown, and disposal undoubtedly occurs from a variety of dispersed sources. Sources of disposal, along with the types and quantities of APIs resulting from each source, are important to understand so that effective pollution prevention approaches can be designed and implemented. Accumulation of leftover, unwanted drugs poses three major concerns: (i) APIs disposed to sewage or trash compose a diverse source of potential chemical stressors in the environment. (ii) Accumulated drugs represent increased potential for drug diversion, with its attendant risks of unintentional poisonings and abuse. (iii) Leftover drugs represent wasted healthcare resources and lost opportunities for medical treatment. This paper has four major purposes: (1) Define the processes, actions, and behaviors that control and drive the consumption, accumulation, and need for disposal of pharmaceuticals. (2) Provide an overview of the diverse locations where drugs are used and accumulate. (3) Present a summary of the first cataloging of APIs disposed by a defined subpopulation. (4) Identify opportunities for pollution prevention and source reduction.     

Groundwater contamination by microbiological and chemical substances released from hospital wastewater: Health risk assessment for drinking water consumers

Contamination of natural aquatic ecosystems by hospital wastewater is a major environmental and human health issue. Disinfectants, pharmaceuticals, radionuclides and solvents are widely used in hospitals for medical purposes and research. After application, some of these substances combine with hospital effluents and, in industrialised countries, reach the municipal sewer network. In certain developing countries, hospitals usually discharge their wastewater into septic tanks equipped with diffusion wells. The discharge of chemical compounds from hospital activities into the natural environment can lead to the pollution of water resources and risks for human health. The aim of this article is to present: (i) the steps of a procedure intended to evaluate risks to human health linked to hospital effluents discharged into a septic tank equipped with a diffusion well; and (ii) the results of its application on the effluents of a hospital in Port-au-Prince. The procedure is based on a scenario that describes the discharge of hospital effluents, via septic tanks, into a karstic formation where water resources are used for human consumption. COD, Chloroform, dichlomethane, dibromochloromethane, dichlorobromomethane and bromoform contents were measured. Furthermore, the presence of heavy metals (chrome, nickel and lead) and faecal coliforms were studied. Maximum concentrations were 700 NPP/100 ml for faecal coliforms and 112 mg/L for COD. A risk of infection of 10^? 5 infection per year was calculated. Major chemical risks, particularly for children, relating to Pb(II), Cr(III), Cr(VI) and Ni(II) contained in the ground water were also characterised. Certain aspects of the scenario studied require improvement, especially those relating to the characterisation of drugs in groundwater and the detection of other microbiological indicators such as protozoa, enterococcus and viruses.     

The influence of uncertainty and location-specific conditions on the environmental prioritisation of human pharmaceuticals in Europe

The selection of priority APIs (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients) can benefit from a spatially explicit approach, since an API might exceed the threshold of environmental concern in one location, while staying below that same threshold in another. However, such a spatially explicit approach is relatively data intensive and subject to parameter uncertainty due to limited data. This raises the question to what extent a spatially explicit approach for the environmental prioritisation of APIs remains worthwhile when accounting for uncertainty in parameter settings. We show here that the inclusion of spatially explicit information enables a more efficient environmental prioritisation of APIs in Europe, compared with a non-spatial EU-wide approach, also under uncertain conditions. In a case study with nine antibiotics, uncertainty distributions of the PAF (Potentially Affected Fraction) of aquatic species were calculated in 100 1 100 km² environmental grid cells throughout Europe, and used for the selection of priority APIs. Two APIs have median PAF values that exceed a threshold PAF of 1% in at least one environmental grid cell in Europe, i.e., oxytetracycline and erythromycin. At a tenfold lower threshold PAF (i.e., 0.1%), two additional APIs would be selected, i.e., cefuroxime and ciprofloxacin. However, in 94% of the environmental grid cells in Europe, no APIs exceed either of the thresholds. This illustrates the advantage of following a location-specific approach in the prioritisation of APIs. This added value remains when accounting for uncertainty in parameter settings, i.e., if the 95th percentile of the PAF instead of its median value is compared with the threshold. In 96% of the environmental grid cells, the location-specific approach still enables a reduction of the selection of priority APIs of at least 50%, compared with a EU-wide prioritisation.     

Consumption-based approach for assessing the contribution of hospitals towards the load of pharmaceutical residues in municipal wastewater

Hospitals are considered as major sources of pharmaceutical residues discharged to municipal wastewater, but recent experimental studies showed that the contribution of hospitals to the loads of selected, quantifiable pharmaceuticals in sewage treatment plant (STP) influents was limited. However such conclusions are made based on the experimental analysis of pharmaceuticals in hospital wastewater which is hindered by a number of factors such as access to suitable sampling sites, difficulties in obtaining representative samples and availability of analytical methods. Therefore, this study explores a refined and extended consumption-based approach to predict the contribution of six selected Australian hospitals to the loads of 589 pharmaceuticals in municipal wastewater. In addition, the possibility that hospital-specific substances are present at levels that may pose a risk for human health was evaluated. For 63 to 84% of the pharmaceuticals investigated, the selected hospitals are not a major point source with individual contributions likely to be less than 15% which is in line with previous experimental studies. In contrast, between 10 and 20% of the pharmaceuticals consumed in the selected hospitals are exclusively used in these hospitals. For these hospital-specific substances, 57 distinct pharmaceuticals may cause concerns for human health as concentrations predicted in hospital effluents are less than 100-fold lower than effect thresholds. However, when concentrations were predicted in the influent of the corresponding STP, only 12 compounds (including the antineoplastic vincristine, the antibiotics tazobactam and piperacillin) remain in concentration close to effect thresholds, but further decrease is expected after removal in STP, dilution in the receiving stream and drinking water treatment. The results of this study suggest that risks of human exposure to the pharmaceuticals exclusively administered in the investigated hospitals are limited and decentralised wastewater treatment at these sites would not have a substantial impact on pharmaceutical loads entering STPs, and finally the environment. Overall, our approach demonstrates a unique opportunity to screen for pharmaceuticals used in hospitals and identifying priority pollutants in hospital wastewater explicitly accounting for site-specific conditions. Being based on consumption and loads discharged by hospitals into municipal wastewater, it is not limited by 1) the big effort to obtain representative samples from sewers, 2) the availability of sensitive chemical analysis or 3) a pre-selection of consumption data (e.g. consumption volume).     

Investigating the sensitivity of household food security to agriculture-related shocks and the implication of social and natural capital

This paper examines the impact of agriculture-related shocks on consumption patterns of rural farming households using 3 years of data from South Africa. We make two key observations. First, agriculture-related shocks reduce households’ consumption. Second, natural resources and informal social capital somewhat counteract this reduction and sustain dietary requirements. In general, our findings suggest the promotion of informal social capital and natural resources as they are cheaper and more accessible coping strategies, in comparison to, for example, insurance, which remains unaffordable in most rural parts of sub-Saharan Africa. However, a lingering concern centres on the sustainability of these less conventional adaptation strategies.     

The survey of living conditions in the Arctic (SLiCA): A comparative sustainable livelihoods assessment

The Arctic is a region of the world experiencing extremely rapid climatic and social change. Indigenous communities have faced similar challenges for millennia and have historically demonstrated remarkable resilience to socioecological perturbations. In contemporary contexts, however, it appears that the pace and extent of change is overwhelming the adaptive capacities of many indigenous communities. Scholars recently completed a survey of living conditions spanning the circumpolar Arctic to quantitatively document the impacts of social and ecological stress across regions. The database they created is called the Survey of Living Conditions in the Arctic or SLiCA. This article explores the utility of using this dataset to compare livelihood systems across three sub-regions of Alaska and four sub-regions within the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug of the Russian Federation. The results point out that livelihood systems in Chukotka have a substantially lower level of sustainability than in Northwest Alaska due to the high prevalence of vulnerable households.     

A preliminary survey of household and personal carbon dioxide emissions in Ireland

A model specifically designed for Ireland was used to measure CO(2)e emissions (CO(2), CH(4) and N(2)O) from Irish households for the first time. A total of 103 Irish households with occupancy rates varying between 1 and 6 (mean 2.9) were surveyed. The average annual household emission was found to be 16.55 t CO(2)e y(-1), which is equivalent to an average personal emission of 5.70 t CO(2)e Ca(-1) y(-1) comprising 42.2% related to home energy use, 35.1% to transport, 20.6% to air travel and other fuel intensive leisure activities, and just 2.1% associated with household waste disposal. Air travel accounts for an average personal emission of 1.152 t CO(2)e Ca(-1) y(-1), although this is highest in single and two person households at 1.693 and 2.227 t CO(2)e Ca(-1) y(-1) respectively. Household energy consumption becomes more efficient when occupancy rate increases. The most energy efficient homes in the survey were terraced with a natural gas heating systems. The least efficient were detached house with oil fuelled heating system.     

Prioritization of Sustainable Groundwater Management Needs: The Case of the Israel's Stressed Coastal Aquifer

On-going population growth and resulting domestic demand for water require rapid and effective decision-making as regards groundwater management and control of the various sources of salinization and pollution in Coastal aquifers. Sustainability of water resources for utilization by future generations must therefore be a high priority, not only for the purpose of fulfilling needs for water usage but also for bringing people into harmony with their ambient natural environment.The objective of this paper is to propose an empirical approach for prioritization of the needs involved for sustainable aquifer management. The approach involves a schematic format to:(1) develop a global understanding of an aquifer's hydrological and environmental properties in order to delineate appropriate eco-hydrological scenarios and recommend corresponding operational management activities; and(2) emphasize the importance of educating and increasing the awareness of the population involved as to the need for and viability of socially acceptable measures for sustainable management of groundwater and other resources.The psychologist Abraham Maslow utilized a pyramid to illustrate that until people's most basic needs were fulfilled, higher levels of needs would remain irrelevant. This paper postulates a comparable pyramid prioritizing hydrological needs required for progressing towards sustainable groundwater resources. Two sub-regions of Israel's Coastal aquifer in the Sharon region have been presented as representative areas, each characterized by different stress of exploitation. In assessing these sub-regions situation, specific measures have been recommended for achieving and/or maintaining sustainable groundwater resources in light of the ambient environment, and the level of the population on the pyramidal hierarchy of groundwater needs.     

Innovative solutions for averting a potential resource crisis—the case of one-person households in England and Wales

This paper seeks to test the hypothesis that growth in one-person households will increase the domestic consumption of energy, land and household goods in England and Wales. It concludes that if current consumer behaviour of one-person households persists there will be a significant increase in the consumption of all three resources in the future. However, it argues that that many opportunities exist in England and Wales for tackling this problem. For example the new housing programme, increasing ability amongst one-person households to afford “green alternatives” and the search amongst some one-person households for alternative lifestyles (which could be potentially more resource efficient). The paper suggests that providing one-person households with opportunities to live in more resource efficient housing and adopt pro-environmental behaviour could significantly reduce their future environmental impact. Various design, fiscal and awareness-raising solutions are presented in the paper and their viability is assessed. These include ecological homes, collective housing forms, occupancy tax, relocation packages, educational programmes and targeted advertising campaigns. The paper proposes that using a combination of these more innovative solutions to the problem could significantly reduce the future environmental impact of one-person households.     

Survey of residential extremely-low-frequency magnetic field exposure among children in Taiwan

This survey estimated the extremely-low-frequency magnetic field (ELF-MF) exposure in households with children under the age of 7 years in Taiwan. To select a representative sample, we used the probability proportional to size sampling technique and simple random cluster sampling technique to select study districts in each city/county of Taiwan. A total of 40 districts were selected and all households with children aged less than 7 (n=4184) were visited and solicited for in-home measurements. Four trained interviewers carried out spot-measurements in rooms of each selected household during a two-year period. A questionnaire inquiring residential characteristics and nearby power facilities was also administered to a parent or caregiver. ELF-MF measurements were performed in a total of 2214 households (53% participation rate). Controlling for participation rate, the weighted overall mean magnetic field exposure was estimated at 0.121 (standard deviation 0.185) micro-Tesla (microT) (range 0.010-3.304 microT). Mean exposures were higher than 0.3 and 0.4 microT in an estimated 7.3% (n=159) and 5.4% (n=115) of the households, respectively. There was a substantial agreement between overall mean residential exposure and exposure measured in children's bedrooms. In a multivariate logistic regression model, we noted that buildings with advanced age, buildings for both residential and commercial uses, and buildings close to power facilities were more likely a to have mean exposure above 0.4 microT. Our survey results indicate that residential ELF-MF exposure is likely to be higher for children in Taiwan than for children in Europe and North America.     

中国北方农牧区生存性碳排放特征与实证

以中国北方农牧区的内蒙古通辽地区为例,结合实地问卷调查,研究农牧民家庭生存性碳排放特征。研究提出了农牧民家庭生存碳排放评估指标体系,其中能源产品和非能源产品成为农牧民家庭生存性碳排放的两大来源。计算了农牧民人均能源消费碳排放量及食物消费碳排放量。研究结果表明:在能源方面,农牧民家庭生存性碳排放构成呈能源消费主导型,2008年,该区人均生存性碳排放总量为1 040.36 kg,其中矿物燃料、用电消费碳排放分别占总生存性碳排放的45.53%和30%;受传统生活方式影响,家庭用能结构粗放,以矿物化石能及一次生物质能为主,电能使用比例相对较低。在食物方面,农牧民家庭食物消费结构渐趋低碳化,2008年和2009年人均食物消费总碳排放量分别为78.42 kg和76.67 kg,以粮食消费占主导,占总消费量的60%;2009年与2008年比较,含碳量较高的粮食和食用油消费分别降低4%和3.8%。该区农牧民人均食物消费碳排放量只是美国的39.2%,英国的49.6%,日本的72%,属基本生存线碳排放。     

Convergence of new members of the EU: changes in household consumption expenditure structure regarding environmental impact during the prosperous period

The materially intensive consumption patterns and lifestyles present a major challenge to sustainability. The major part of consumption is determined in households; therefore, most of the environmental load is allocated to households as well. In order to examine how environmental impact by household consumption varies during the prosperous period, one needs to explore the alteration of household consumption structure, considering that discrete consumption expenditure categories influence environmental impact distinctly. Regarding that, alterations of household consumption expenditure structures are also partially influenced by European integration process. So convergence of new member states of the EU to the old ones by household consumption structure was analyzed. For estimation of occurrence and the extent of household consumption structure, X-convergence was applied. Therefore, the results showed that during the period of 1995–2007, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Lithuania and Slovenia were the most successful and Latvia with Poland achieved the least in converging toward the EU-15 consumption expenditure structure. According to evaluation of distinct consumption categories in relation to acidifying compounds and greenhouse gas emissions intensities, it was revealed that alterations of household consumption expenditure structure led to smaller levels of household environmental impact with the exception of Hungary.     

Can Labor Out-Migration Reduce Firewood Consumption by Rural Households in Western Mountainous China

The relationship between out-migration of labor in the Qinling mountain area and households’ firewood consumption is explored. Migration and remittances reduce households’ firewood consumption due to increases in both income and opportunity cost of firewood collection. Previous studies have been equivocal because they ignored uncertainty in household economy, which is widespread in forest areas of less developed countries. This study provides additional insight by considering vulnerability and subjective assessment of poverty generated by unstable income and an uncertain future. We provide evidence that the amount of firewood consumed depends on income and opportunity cost of firewood collection, but also on a prudent consumption strategy, due to farmers’ subjective assessment of their future possible poverty. We also find out-migration of labor can reduce per capita firewood consumption but subjective poverty also acts against reduction of firewood consumption.     

Spatial differentiation of the impact of transport accessibility on the multidimensional poverty of rural households in karst mountain areas

Environment, Development and Sustainability - Transportation facilities are crucial prerequisite for enhancing economic development. In karst mountain areas, poverty of peasant households is...     

中国设区市土地集约利用类型区划分研究

中国的基本国情之一是地区差异明显。在进行城市集约利用评价或制定相关标准时,由于存在这种差异,导致很多政策执行不力。在人们高度重视城市土地集约利用研究时,如何进行差别对待,因地制宜,需要从类型区的角度进行研究。本文以设区城市为研究对象,在对《城市统计年鉴》进行统计分析的基础上,采用"统计分析+使用频率"方法,筛选出共4类24个指标,借助统计资料和GIS技术,划分了4个一级集约利用类型区以及各区中的17个亚区,并建立了亚区命名体系。结果显示:(1)城市土地集约利用程度大致为东高西低。东部城市多为Ⅰ、Ⅱ级,中部城市多为Ⅲ级,西部城市多为Ⅳ级。(2)城市土地集约程度和城市经济状况存在不完全吻合现象,表现在一些城市经济情况相对比较好,但是土地集约利用程度却不高。这在中部城市表现得十分明显。由此得出结论,采用本文的研究思路和方法可以较好地解决城市土地集约利用的差异管理问题,并可进行动态更新,使政策制定和管理更具操作性。     

家庭食品处理风险行为特征与食源性疾病间相关性研究

借鉴国内外研究成果,结合中国实际界定了引发食源性疾病的家庭食品处理风险行为,并基于10省(区)2 163户家庭的横断面抽样调查数据,以实践理论为指导,运用因子分析和聚类分析方法,实证测度家庭食品处理风险行为特征。以食源性腹泻为研究病例,利用有序多分类Logit回归模型分析了家庭食品处理风险行为特征与食源性疾病之间的关系,确定家庭食品处理的关键风险行为特征与人群特征。结果表明,对应于食品处理安全行为,家庭食品处理风险行为特征主要为食品运输、食品冷藏与剩菜处理不当,厨房清洁用品交叉污染,生熟食品交叉污染,清洁卫生风险,烹调不彻底等七种类型,且生熟食品交叉污染与剩菜处理不当是引发家庭食源性腹泻的最主要风险行为特征,尤其是男性、已婚、年龄较大、家庭人口数较少、受教育程度和职业稳定度较低、以及个人和家庭年收入水平较低的家庭人群。家庭是预防食源性疾病的最后一道防线,政府应致力于与消费者进行风险沟通,提升消费者的责任认知,采用差异化策略改善风险消费者的家庭食品处理习惯,实施抗击食源性疾病战略。     

中国农村居民煤炭消费及影响因素研究

农村居民煤炭消费牵涉到农村居民生活方式与能源转型、北方供暖清洁化改革、大气污染治理等重大改革实践,如何准确理解和研判现有的农村居民煤炭消费现状,并进而识别出科学、有效的减煤措施,已成为改善农村居民能源结构、治理农村地区煤炭消费、改善北方地区大气质量的重要手段之一。然而,现有对农村居民煤炭消费的统计数据可能存在一定低估,基础性数据的匮乏与不足严重阻碍了科学研究和公共决策。为了准确了解我国农村居民煤炭消费的现状、特征与空间分布,本文采用第三次中国家庭能源消费调查数据对农村居民的煤炭消费进行了核算,并针对户均煤炭消费量和地区农村居民煤炭消费总量进行了比较,在此基础上还考察了气候差异、资源禀赋、收入水平等因素对农村居民煤炭需求的影响。研究结果表明,2014年中国农村居民生活用煤炭消费总量为6 585.7万tce,平均每户煤炭消费量为347.2 kgce,其中供暖用煤占比96.9%,烹饪用煤占比3.1%。各省的户均煤炭消费和煤炭消费总量呈现显著的空间差异,其中:东北、西部地区农村居民户均煤炭消费量显著高于其他地区,北京及周边的河北、山东、山西、内蒙、辽宁和天津7个省、市的农村居民共消费了全国55%的农村生活用煤,其中北京周边的河北、山东和山西三省农村居民消费了全国46.6%的农村煤炭消费。地区煤炭资源禀赋、农村居民住房面积与供暖用煤需求显著正相关,而冬季户外温度、居民收入水平同煤炭需求之间关系不显著。未来政府应通过改善农村居民民生需求、推动农村能源转型、提高农村能源统计水平等途径来有效治理农村散煤消费。     

Cost-effectiveness of recycling and recirculation of natural and energy resources based on the equality principle

A cost structure is proposed for optimizing the recirculation and recycling of commodities and energy usage considering regional, national and global operating scales. The methodology proposed involves business administration theory and economics and employs the previously introduced equality principle and the model for efficient use of resources for optimal production economy (EUROPE) to impose shadow costs on unwanted material wastes and energy residuals that produce economic incentives to reduce such wastes at the source. A case study presents the practical application of the proposed theory in a national and a global context. It is concluded that the presented methodology is useful for increasing the cost-effectiveness and optimizing recirculation and recycling in the usage of energy resources and natural resources in general. Profitability increases, technology is advanced and environmental conditions improve simultaneously through the application of the EUROPE model to analyze government policy related to the recirculation and recycling of solid wastes and energy. Furthermore, the equity of the distribution of such recirculation and recycling facilities is improved. The developed methods are useful information support tools for decision-making in the management of energy and other natural resources with emphasis on the economics of recirculated and recycled residuals.     

Can Labor Out-Migration Reduce Firewood Consumption by Rural Households in Western Mountainous China

Abstract

The relationship between out-migration of labor in the Qinling mountain area and households’ firewood consumption is explored. Migration and remittances reduce households’ firewood consumption due to increases in both income and opportunity cost of firewood collection. Previous studies have been equivocal because they ignored uncertainty in household economy, which is widespread in forest areas of less developed countries. This study provides additional insight by considering vulnerability and subjective assessment of poverty generated by unstable income and an uncertain future. We provide evidence that the amount of firewood consumed depends on income and opportunity cost of firewood collection, but also on a prudent consumption strategy, due to farmers’ subjective assessment of their future possible poverty. We also find out-migration of labor can reduce per capita firewood consumption but subjective poverty also acts against reduction of firewood consumption.