Toxic and genotoxic impact of fibrates and their photoproducts on non-target organisms

Lipid regulators have been detected in effluents from sewage treatment plants and surface waters from humans via excretion. This study was designed to assess the ecotoxicity of fibrates, lipid regulating agents. The following compounds were investigated: Bezafibrate, Fenofibrate and Gemfibrozil and their derivatives obtained by solar simulator irradiation. Bioassays were performed on bacteria, algae, rotifers and microcrustaceans to assess acute and chronic toxicity, while SOS Chromotest and Ames test were utilized to detect the genotoxic potential of the investigated compounds. The photoproducts were identified by their physical features and for the first risk evaluation, the environmental impact of parental compounds was calculated by Measured Environmental Concentrations (MEC) using the available data from the literature regarding drug occurrence in the aquatic environment and the Predicted No Effect Concentrations (PNEC) based on our toxicity data. The results showed that acute toxicity was in the order of dozens of mg/L for all the trophic levels utilized in bioassays (bacteria, rotifers, crustaceans). Chronic exposure to these compounds caused inhibition of growth population on rotifers and crustaceans while the algae seemed to be slightly affected by this class of pharmaceuticals. Genotoxic and mutagenic effects were especially found for the Gemfibrozil photoproduct suggesting that also byproducts have to be considered in the environmental risk of drugs.     

Liquid versus solid phase bioassays for dredged material toxicity assessment

Since 1994 the results of the analyses of key chemical compounds (trace metals, polychlorinated biphenyls and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) and the comparison with the corresponding sediment quality guidelines (SQGs) are used in decision-making for dredged material management in Spain. Nonetheless in the last decades a tiered testing approach is promoted for assessing the physical and chemical characteristics of dredged sediments and their potential biological effects in the environment. Bioassays have been used for sediment toxicity assessment in Spain but few or no experiences are reported on harbour sediments. We studied the incidence of toxicity in the 7 d bioassay using rotifers (Brachionus plicatilis) and the 48 h bioassay using sea urchin (Paracentrotus lividus) embryos over a series of experiments employing 22 different elutriates. The relative performance of this exposure phase was not comparable to data on the 10-d acute toxicity test using the burrowing amphipod Corophium volutator and the polychaete Arenicola marina, carried out on the whole sediments. These results evidence the importance of the exposure route and the test selected in decision-making, as the toxicity registered for the undiluted elutriates was largely due to the different solubility of sediment-bound contaminants. This work and other studies indicate that for many sediments, a complete battery of test is recommended together with physico-chemical analyses to decide whether dredged sediments are suitable for open water disposal or not.     

Environmental levels, toxicity and human exposure to tributyltin (TBT)-contaminated marine environment. a review. b_antizar@hotmail.com

Tributyltin (TBT) is a toxic chemical used for various industrial purposes such as slime control in paper mills, disinfection of circulating industrial cooling waters, antifouling agents, and the preservation of wood. Due to its widespread use as an antifouling agent in boat paints, TBT is a common contaminant of marine and freshwater ecosystems exceeding acute and chronic toxicity levels. TBT is the most significant pesticide in marine and freshwaters in Europe and consequently its environmental level, fate, toxicity and human exposure are of current concern. Thus, the European Union has decided to specifically include TBT compounds in its list of priority compounds in water in order to control its fate in natural systems, due to their toxic, persistent, bioaccumulative and endocrine disruptive characteristics. Additionally, the International Maritime Organization has called for a global treaty that bans the application of TBT-based paints starting 1 of January 2003, and total prohibition by 1 of January 2008. This paper reviews the state of the science regarding TBT, with special attention paid to the environmental levels, toxicity, and human exposure. TBT compounds have been detected in a number of environmental samples. In humans, organotin compounds have been detected in blood and in the liver. As for other persistent organic pollutants, dietary intake is most probably the main route of exposure to TBT compounds for the general population. However, data concerning TBT levels in foodstuffs are scarce. It is concluded that investigations on experimental toxicity, dietary intake, potential human health effects and development of new sustainable technologies to remove TBT compounds are clearly necessary.     

Effects of acute γ-irradiation on community structure of the aquatic microbial microcosm

To characterise indirect effects of ionising radiation on aquatic microbial communities, effects of acute γ-irradiation were investigated in a microcosm consisting of populations of green algae (Chlorella sp. and Scenedesmus sp.) and a blue-green alga (Tolypothrix sp.) as producer; a ciliate protozoan (Cyclidium glaucoma), rotifers (Lecane sp. and Philodina sp.) and an oligochaete (Aeolosoma hemprichi) as consumer; and more than four species of bacteria as decomposers. Population changes in the constituent organisms were observed over 160 days after irradiation. Prokaryotic community structure was also examined by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) of 16S rDNA. Principle response curve analysis revealed that the populations of the microcosm as a whole were not significantly affected at 100 Gy while they were adversely affected at 500-5000 Gy in a dose-dependent manner. However, some effects on each population, including each bacterial population detected by DGGE, did not depend on radiation doses, and some populations in the irradiated microcosm were larger than those of the control. These unexpected results are regarded as indirect effects through interspecies interactions, and possible mechanisms are proposed originating from population changes in other organisms co-existing in the microcosm. For example, some indirect effects on consumers and decomposers likely arose from interspecies competition within each trophic level. It is also likely that prey-predator relationships between producers and consumers caused some indirect effects on producers.     

Toxicological effects of disinfections using sodium hypochlorite on aquatic organisms and its contribution to AOX formation in hospital wastewater

Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is often used for disinfecting hospital wastewater in order to prevent the spread of pathogenic microorganisms, causal agents of nosocomial infectious diseases. Chlorine disinfectants in wastewater react with organic matters, giving rise to organic chlorine compounds such as AOX (halogenated organic compounds adsorbable on activated carbon), which are toxic for aquatic organisms and are persistent environmental contaminants. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity on aquatic organisms of hospital wastewater from services using NaOCl in pre-chlorination. Wastewater samples from the infectious and tropical diseases department of a hospital of a large city in southeast of France were collected. Three samples per day were collected in the connecting well department at 9 a.m., 1 p.m. and 5 p.m. during 8 days from 13 March to 22 March 2001, and a mixture was made at 6 p.m. with the three samples in order to obtain a representative sample for the day. The toxicity test comprised the 24-h EC50 on Daphnia magna and a bioluminescence assay using Vibrio fischeri photobacteria. Fecal coliforms and physicochemical analyses such as total organic carbon (TOC), chloride, AOX, total suspended solids (TSS) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were carried out. Wastewater samples highlighted considerable acute toxicity on D. magna and V. fischeri photobacteria. However, low most probable numbers (MPN), ranging from <3 to 2400 for 100 ml, were detected for fecal coliforms. Statistical analysis, with a confidence interval of 95%, gave a strong linear regression assessed with r=0.98 between AOX concentrations and EC50 (TU) on daphnia. The identification of an ideal concentration of NaOCl in disinfecting hospital wastewater, i.e. its non-observed effect concentration (NOEC) on algae and D. magna, seems to be a research issue that could facilitate the control of AOX toxicity effects on aquatic organisms. Therefore, it would be necessary to monitor the biocide properties of NaOCl on fecal coliforms at various doses and its toxicity effects on aquatic organisms.     

An integrated approach to the toxicity assessment of Irish marine sediments: validation of established marine bioassays for the monitoring of Irish marine sediments

This paper describes the ecotoxicological evaluation of marine sediments from three sites around Ireland representative of a range of contaminant burdens. A comprehensive assessment of potential sediment toxicity requires the consideration of multiple exposure phases. In addition to the evaluation of multi-exposure phases the use of a battery of multi-trophic test species has been advocated by a number of researchers as testing of single or few organisms may not detect toxicants with a specific mode of action. The Microtox(R) solid phase test (SPT) and the 10-d acute amphipod test with Corophium volutator were used to assess whole sediment toxicity. Porewater and elutriates were assessed with the Microtox(R) acute test, the marine prasinophyte Tetraselmis suecica, and the marine copepod Tisbe battagliai. Solvent extracts were assayed with the Microtox(R) and T. battagliai acute tests. Alexandra Basin was identified as the most toxic site according to all tests, except the Microtox(R) SPT which identified the Dunmore East site as being more toxic. However, it was not possible to correlate the observed ecotoxicological effects with a specific and/or class of contaminants based on sediment chemistry alone. Therefore porewaters found to elicit significant toxicity (Dunmore East and Alexandra Basin) with the test battery were selected for further TIE assessment with T. battalgiai and the Microtox(R) system. The results of this study have important implications for risk assessment in estuarine and coastal waters in Ireland, where, at present the monitoring of sediment and water quality is predominantly reliant on chemical analysis alone.     

Selection, preparation, and disposal of sodium compounds for dry SOx scrubbers

A program has been initiated to assess an SO₂ removal method wherein dry powdered sodium compounds are injected into the gas stream ahead of the baghouse filter. The compounds are collected on the surface of the filter bags for reaction with the gaseous SO₂. Initial program efforts include a survey of suitable and available sodium compounds, methods of preparing the compounds for injection, and an invistigation of environmentally acceptable methods of disposal.     

Assessment of indoor environmental quality in existing multi-family buildings in North–East Europe

Sixteen existing multi-family buildings (94 apartments) in Finland and 20 (96 apartments) in Lithuania were investigated prior to their renovation in order to develop and test out a common protocol for the indoor environmental quality (IEQ) assessment, and to assess the potential for improving IEQ along with energy efficiency. Baseline data on buildings, as well as data on temperature (T), relative humidity (RH), carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), formaldehyde, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), radon, and microbial content in settled dust were collected from each apartment. In addition, questionnaire data regarding housing quality and health were collected from the occupants. The results indicated that most measured IEQ parameters were within recommended limits. However, different baselines in each country were observed especially for parameters related to thermal conditions and ventilation. Different baselines were also observed for the respondents' satisfaction with their residence and indoor air quality, as well as their behavior related to indoor environment. In this paper, we present some evidence for the potential in improving IEQ along with energy efficiency in the current building stock, followed by discussion of possible IEQ indicators and development of the assessment protocol.     

Effects of acute γ-irradiation on the aquatic microbial microcosm in comparison with chemicals

Effects of acute γ-irradiation were investigated in the aquatic microcosm consisting of green algae (Chlorella sp. and Scenedesmus sp.) and a blue–green alga (Tolypothrix sp.) as producers; an oligochaete (Aeolosoma hemprichi), rotifers (Lecane sp. and Philodina sp.) and a ciliate protozoan (Cyclidium glaucoma) as consumers; and more than four species of bacteria as decomposers. At 100 Gy, populations were not affected in any taxa. At 500–5000 Gy, one or three taxa died out and populations of two or three taxa decreased over time, while that of Tolypothrix sp. increased. This Tolypothrix sp. increase was likely an indirect effect due to interspecies interactions. The principal response curve analysis revealed that the main trend of the effects was a dose-dependent population decrease. For a better understanding of radiation risks in aquatic microbial communities, effect doses of γ-rays compared with copper, herbicides and detergents were evaluated using the radiochemoecological conceptual model and the effect index for microcosm.     

Acute health impacts of airborne particles estimated from satellite remote sensing

Satellite-based remote sensing provides a unique opportunity to monitor air quality from space at global, continental, national and regional scales. Most current research focused on developing empirical models using ground measurements of the ambient particulate. However, the application of satellite-based exposure assessment in environmental health is still limited, especially for acute effects, because the development of satellite PM_2.5 model depends on the availability of ground measurements. We tested the hypothesis that MODIS AOD (aerosol optical depth) exposure estimates, obtained from NASA satellites, are directly associated with daily health outcomes. Three independent healthcare databases were used: unscheduled outpatient visits, hospital admissions, and mortality collected in Beijing metropolitan area, China during 2006. We use generalized linear models to compare the short-term effects of air pollution assessed by ground monitoring (PM₁₀) with adjustment of absolute humidity (AH) and AH-calibrated AOD. Across all databases we found that both AH-calibrated AOD and PM₁₀ (adjusted by AH) were consistently associated with elevated daily events on the current day and/or lag days for cardiovascular diseases, ischemic heart diseases, and COPD. The relative risks estimated by AH-calibrated AOD and PM₁₀ (adjusted by AH) were similar. Additionally, compared to ground PM₁₀, we found that AH-calibrated AOD had narrower confidence intervals for all models and was more robust in estimating the current day and lag day effects. Our preliminary findings suggested that, with proper adjustment of meteorological factors, satellite AOD can be used directly to estimate the acute health impacts of ambient particles without prior calibrating to the sparse ground monitoring networks.     

Comparative toxicity of solid waste leachates to Daphnia magna

The comparative acute and chronic toxicities of municipal, industrial, coal-fired power plant, and synthetic fuel solid waste leachates to the aquatic invertebrate Daphnia magna were determined. Seventeen leachates were laboratory-derived by extraction with 0.5 N acetic acid, and one, an arsenic-contaminated groundwater, was naturally derived. The acute toxicity 48-h LC₅₀ estimates (concentrations of the test materials that killed 50% of the test organisms in 48 h) ranged from 0.0005% for a dye waste leachate to > 100% (i.e., undiluted) for a coal gasification waste leachate. The most toxic leachates were derived from a dye waste, a plater's waste, and the arsenic-contaminated groundwater, and the least toxic were from a soybean process cake waste and a coal gasification waste. Of the 16 leachates used in the 28 day chronic toxicity tests, only the arsenic-contaminated groundwater and a municipal sewage sludge significantly affected D. magna reproduction. The former material at 1.0% concentration and the sludge at 0.1% caused about an 88% reduction in the numbers of young produced by exposed females compared with controls. Generally, the industrial waste leachates were more toxic than those from the power plant and synthetic fuel wastes. Because its presence in the test materials interfered with interpretation of the results, acetic acid may not be an appropriate extraction medium for preparation of leachates.     

An analysis of the environmental pressure exerted by the eucalyptus-based kraft pulp industry in Thailand

The study reported here focuses on the environmental pressure exerted by large-scale eucalyptus-based kraft pulp industry in Thailand. The objective of this study was to identify the most important sources of greenhouse gases, acidifying and eutrophying compounds and tropospheric ozone precursors, human toxicity compounds and solid waste associated with the kraft pulp industry. To this end, we performed an environmental systems analysis of the kraft pulp industry system in which we distinguished between two subsystems: the eucalyptus forestry subsystem and the kraft pulp production subsystem. The results indicate that the environmental pressure is caused by the kraft pulp production subsystem rather than by the eucalyptus forestry one. The chemical recovery unit was found to be the most important source of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and responsible for more than one-half of the emissions of greenhouse gases and acidifying compounds from eucalyptus-based kraft pulp production in Thailand. Biomass combustion in the energy gene ration unit is an important source of nitrogen oxide (NO _x ) and carbon monoxide (CO) which in turn are responsible for over 50% of the emissions of tropospheric ozone precursors. About 73% of the eutrophication is caused by biological aerobic wastewater treatment emitting phosphorus (P). With respect to the eucalyptus forestry, only fertilizer use in eucalyptus plantations is a relevant source of pollution through the emission of nitrous oxide (N₂O) and phosphate (PO ₄ ³⁻ ).     

Influence of plant activity and phosphates on thorium bioavailability in soils from Baotou area, Inner Mongolia

Harm of thorium to living organisms is governed by its bioavailability. Thorium bioavailability in the soil-plant system of Baotou rare earth industrial area was studied using pot experiments of wheat and single extraction methods. The effects of wheat growth stage and phosphate on thorium bioavailability were also investigated. Based on extractabilities of various extraction methods (CaCl₂, NH₄NO₃, EDTA, HOAc) and correlation analysis of thorium uptake by wheat plant and extractable thorium, a mixture of 0.02 M EDTA + 0.5 M NH₄OAc (pH 4.6) was found suitable for evaluation of thorium bioavailability in Baotou soil, which could be predicted quantitatively by multiple regression models. Because of differences of wheat root activities, thorium bioavailability in rhizosphere soil was higher than in bulk soil at tillering stage, but the reverse occurred at jointing stage. Phosphate addition induced the mineralization of soluble thorium by forming stable thorium phosphate compounds, and reduced thorium bioavailability in soil.     

The effect of suspended particles coated by humic acid on the toxicity of pharmaceuticals, estrogens, and phenolic compounds

The sorption characteristics of 10 organic chemicals, categorized as pharmaceuticals, estrogens and phenols, onto synthetic suspended particle (i.e., alumina) coated with humic acid were investigated according to their octanol-water partition coefficient (K(ow)). Chemical analyses were performed with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The effects of particles on the toxicity reduction were evaluated using bioassay tests, using Daphnia magna and Vibrio fisheri for phenols and pharmaceuticals, and the human breast cancer cell MCF-7 for estrogens. Sorption studies revealed that 22 and 38% of octylphenol and pentachlorophenol, respectively, were removed by suspended particle, whereas 2,4-dichlorophenol was not removed, which was directly proportional to the logK(ow) value. Similar to the sorption tests, suspended particles significantly reduced the acute toxicities of octylphenol and pentachlorophenol to D. magna and V. fisheri (p<0.01), but there was no significant difference in the toxicity of 2,4-dichlorophenol to D. magna (p=0.8374). Pharmaceuticals, such as ibuprofen, gemfibrozil and tolfenamic acid, showed no discernible sorption to the suspended particle, with the exception of diclofenac, which revealed 11% sorption. For estrogens, such as estrone, 17beta-estradiol and 17alpha-ethynylestradiol, the results indicated no reduction in the sorption test. This may be attributed to the polar interaction by functional groups in sorption between pharmaceuticals and estrogens and suspended particles. In the bioassays, presence of suspended particles did not significantly modify the toxicity of pharmaceuticals (regardless of their K(ow) values) to D. magna, V. fisheri or E-screen.     

Sediment toxicity assessment in the Lagoon of Venice (Italy) using Paracentrotus lividus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) fertilization and embryo bioassays

The capacity of two toxicity bioassays (fertilization and embryo toxicity tests) to discriminate sediment toxicity using the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus was tested in five stations with different levels of pollution in the Lagoon of Venice. Two stations were located in estuarine sites, two in the industrial zone, and one in a site at the top of our quality gradient (reference). Elutriate was chosen as sediment matrix to assess the potential effects of bioavailable pollutants in the water column as a consequence of sediment resuspension (dredging and dumping, fishing gear, etc.). An experimental design based on Quality Assurance/Quality Control procedures (QA/QC) was adopted in order to set the methodological basis for an effective use of these bioassays in monitoring programs. Results revealed both higher embriotoxicity than spermiotoxicity in all stations and the efficacy of combined use of both toxicity bioassays in discriminating differing pollution/bioavailability between stations and periods. The good representativeness of the integrated sampling scheme and the standardization of all experimental phases yielded high precision of results. Clear Toxicity Fingerprints were evidenced for the investigated sites through the combined use of both bioassays. A good fit between ecotoxicological data and chemical contamination levels was found, except for unnatural sediment texture.     

Estimation of the critical effect level for pollution prevention based on oyster embryonic development toxicity test: the search for reliability

In spite of the consideration that toxicity testing is a reduced approach to measure the effects of pollutants on ecosystems, the early-life-stage (ELS) tests have evident ecological relevance because they reflect the possible reproductive impairment of the natural populations. The procedure and validation of Crassostrea rhizophorae embryonic development test have shown that it meets the same precision as other U.S. EPA tests, where EC(50) is generally used as a toxicological endpoint. However, the recognition that EC(50) is not the best endpoint to assess contaminant effects led U.S. EPA to recently suggest EC(25) as an alternative to estimate xenobiotic effects for pollution prevention. To provide reliability to the toxicological test results on C. rhizophorae embryos, the present work aimed to establish the critical effect level for this test organism, based on its reaction to reference toxicants, by using the statistical method proposed by Norberg-King (Inhibition Concentration, version 2.0). Oyster embryos were exposed to graded series of reference toxicants (ZnSO(4) x 7H(2)O; AgNO(3); KCl; CdCl(2)H(2)O; phenol, 4-chlorophenol and dodecyl sodium sulphate). Based on the obtained results, the critical value for C. rhizophorae embryonic development test was estimated as EC(15). The present research enhances the emerging consensus that ELS tests data would be adequate for estimating the chronic safe concentrations of pollutants in the receiving waters. Based on recommended criteria and on the results of the present research, zinc sulphate and 4-chlorophenol have been pointed out, among the inorganic and organic compounds tested, as the best reference toxicants for C. rhizophorae ELS-test.     

The use of plant seeds in toxicity tests of phenolic compounds

Three types of plant seeds-millet, radish, and velvetleaf-were used for toxicity tests of phenolic compounds. Preliminary tests using deionized water indicated that the seed assay was simple, and the toxicity tests of various phenolic compounds showed that results were reproducible. Among the three types of seeds, millet was most sensitive in most cases. The drawback for seed toxicity tests is that plant seeds appear to be less sensitive than other bioassay organisms; however, their simplicity and accuracy should not be overlooked.     

Dividivi tannins: an ecological product for water-based drilling fluids

Modified tannins are used as deflocculant additives in the formulation of water-based drilling fluids (WBDF) for drilling operations in any scenario. Due to their high heavy metals content, these additives are toxic and hazardous for any environmental scenario. Deflocculant efficiency of unmodified tannins (UDT) extracted from fruit pods of “dividivi” (Caesalpinia coriaria) as an additive for WBDF was assessed. Raw materials for UDT elaboration come from the rural and sustainable exploitation of natural occurring dividivi trees, growing in dry tropical forests in Anzoátegui state (Orinoco Oil Belt, eastern Venezuela). The tannins extract, in the form of dividivi fruit powder, contains 47.0 % of total tannins (hydrolyzable tannins plus condensed tannins), of which 67.4 % corresponds to hydrolyzable tannins. Dividivi tannins in WBDF showed nine (9) times deflocculant efficiency than heavy metals commercial modified tannins. Moreover, commercial modified tannins do not improve their deflocculant efficiency with increased tannin content. Ecotoxicological studies were carried out for WBDF formulations with UDT, using freshwater microalgae Scenedesmus dimorphus as chronic toxicity bioindicator. Toxicity bioassays performed with these microalgae did not show significant effects on its population growth. The EC₅₀ values resulted in over 100,000 mg L^?1, and these formulations were therefore considered non-toxic. Values of LC₅₀ obtained this time with Poecilia reticulata, as acute toxicity bioindicator are around 100,000 mg L^?1, with no significant effects on population mortality. Thus, WBDF formulated with UDT can be considered non-toxic formulations for populations of this freshwater fish. From the social perspective, the use of UDT in WBDF fosters organized communities economical activities based on the maintenance of a sustainable supply chain for processing fruits in a quantity enough to obtain three thousand seven hundred fifty kilograms (3750 Kg). The UDT so obtained was used as deflocculant in four (4) oil wells producing excellent performance and relevant savings compared with commercial modified tannin.     

Undisclosed chemicals — implications for risk assessment: A case study from the mining industry

Many of the chemicals used in industry can be hazardous to human health and the environment, and some formulations can have undisclosed ingredients and hazards, increasing the uncertainty of the risks posed by their use. The need for a better understanding of the extent of undisclosed information in chemicals arose from collecting data on the hazards and exposures of chemicals used in typical mining operations (copper, platinum and coal). Four main categories of undisclosed chemicals were defined (incomplete disclosure; chemicals with unspecific identities; relative quantities of ingredients not stated; and trade secret ingredients) by reviewing material safety data sheet (MSDS) omissions in previous studies. A significant number of chemicals (20% of 957 different chemicals) across the three sites had a range of undisclosed information, with majority of the chemicals (39%) having unspecific identities. The majority of undisclosed information was found in commercially available motor oils followed by cleaning products and mechanical maintenance products, as opposed to reagents critical to the main mining processes. All three types of chemicals had trade secrets, unspecific chemical identities and incomplete disclosures. These types of undisclosed information pose a hindrance to a full understanding of the hazards, which is made worse when combined with additional MSDS omissions such as acute toxicity endpoints (LD₅₀) and/or acute aquatic toxicity endpoints (LC₅₀), as well as inadequate hazard classifications of ingredients. The communication of the hazard information in the MSDSs varied according to the chemical type, the manufacturer and the regulations governing the MSDSs. Undisclosed information can undermine occupational health protection, compromise the safety of workers in industry, hinder risk assessment procedures and cause uncertainty about future health. It comes down to the duty of care that industries have towards their employees. With a wide range of chemicals increasingly used, there is a balance that needs to be reached between disclosure requirements, trade secret provisions and definitions of hazardous ingredients for market needs, and the information required to protect the health of their workers.