Pharmaceuticals in soils of lower income countries: Physico-chemical fate and risks from wastewater irrigation

Population growth, increasing affluence, and greater access to medicines have led to an increase in active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) entering sewerage networks. In areas with high wastewater reuse, residual quantities of APIs may enter soils via irrigation with treated, partially treated, or untreated wastewater and sludge. Wastewater used for irrigation is currently not included in chemical environmental risk assessments and requires further consideration in areas with high water reuse. This study critically assesses the contemporary understanding of the occurrence and fate of APIs in soils of low and lower-middle income countries (LLMIC) in order to contribute to the development of risk assessments for APIs in LLMIC. The physico-chemical properties of APIs and soils vary greatly globally, impacting on API fate, bioaccumulation and toxicity. The impact of pH, clay and organic matter on the fate of organic ionisable compounds is discussed in detail. This study highlights the occurrence and the partitioning and degradation coefficients for APIs in soil:porewater systems, API usage data in LLMICS and removal rates (where used) within sewage treatment plants as key areas where data are required in order to inform robust environmental risk assessment methodologies.     

Impacts of climate change on surface water quality in relation to drinking water production

Besides climate change impacts on water availability and hydrological risks, the consequences on water quality is just beginning to be studied. This review aims at proposing a synthesis of the most recent existing interdisciplinary literature on the topic. After a short presentation about the role of the main factors (warming and consequences of extreme events) explaining climate change effects on water quality, the focus will be on two main points. First, the impacts on water quality of resources (rivers and lakes) modifying parameters values (physico-chemical parameters, micropollutants and biological parameters) are considered. Then, the expected impacts on drinking water production and quality of supplied water are discussed. The main conclusion which can be drawn is that a degradation trend of drinking water quality in the context of climate change leads to an increase of at risk situations related to potential health impact.     

Determination of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDs) residues in water samples

Pharmacologically active substances used to treat human and animal illnesses can enter the aquatic environment via effluents from wastewater treatment plants or in the case of veterinary drugs directly through liquid manure discharge. Some of these substances enter the environment either as the parent compound or as active/inactive metabolites. Due to their pharmacological activity, their determination and understanding their behavior and fate in the environment are important. The scope of this paper was to develop an analytical procedure to determine common pharmaceutical residues in wastewaters. Pharmacologically active substances were chosen according to their wide spread application in Slovenia and Central Europe and are members of analgesics, e.g., non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: ibuprofen, naproxen, ketoprofen and diclofenac. Selected compounds were isolated from synthetic water using a novel SPE sorbent Strata X. Due to the non-volatile nature of these compounds they were first silylised prior to gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric detection. The developed procedure was tested with synthetic wastewaters and their extraction efficiency (>84%) and method limits of detection (2-6 ng L(-1)) were determined. Our procedure has been adopted and optimised for "real" water samples and applied to eleven drinking and ten river water samples from Slovenia. The results showed no traces of NSAIDs in all potable water samples and low-range contamination (ng L(-1)) of Slovene rivers. These results show that NSAIDs contamination of Slovene waters is comparable with published results of water contamination in Central Europe.     

Spatially explicit prioritization of human antibiotics and antineoplastics in Europe

This paper presents a screening tool for the location-specific prioritization of human pharmaceutical emissions in Europe, based on risk quotients for the aquatic environment and human health. The tool provides direction towards either monitoring activities or additional research. Its application is illustrated for a set of 11 human antibiotics and 7 antineoplastics. Risk quotients for the aquatic environment were highest for levofloxacin, doxycycline and ciprofloxacin, located in Northern Italy (Milan region; particularly levofloxacin) and other densely populated areas in Europe (e.g. London, Krakow and the Ruhr area). Risk quotients for human health not only depend on pharmaceutical and location, but also on behavioral characteristics, such as consumption patterns. Infants in eastern Spain that consume locally produced food and conventionally treated drinking water were predicted to run the highest risks. A limited comparison with measured concentrations in surface water showed that predicted and measured concentrations are approximately within one order of magnitude.     

Water pollution in Pakistan and its impact on public health--a review

Water pollution is one of the major threats to public health in Pakistan. Drinking water quality is poorly managed and monitored. Pakistan ranks at number 80 among 122 nations regarding drinking water quality. Drinking water sources, both surface and groundwater are contaminated with coliforms, toxic metals and pesticides throughout the country. Various drinking water quality parameters set by WHO are frequently violated. Human activities like improper disposal of municipal and industrial effluents and indiscriminate applications of agrochemicals in agriculture are the main factors contributing to the deterioration of water quality. Microbial and chemical pollutants are the main factors responsible exclusively or in combination for various public health problems. This review discusses a detailed layout of drinking water quality in Pakistan with special emphasis on major pollutants, sources of pollution and the consequent health problems. The data presented in this review are extracted from various studies published in national and international journals. Also reports released by the government and non-governmental organizations are included.     

State of knowledge and concerns on cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins

Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous microorganisms considered as important contributors to the formation of Earth's atmosphere and nitrogen fixation. However, they are also frequently associated with toxic blooms. Indeed, the wide range of hepatotoxins, neurotoxins and dermatotoxins synthesized by these bacteria is a growing environmental and public health concern. This paper provides a state of the art on the occurrence and management of harmful cyanobacterial blooms in surface and drinking water, including economic impacts and research needs. Cyanobacterial blooms usually occur according to a combination of environmental factors e.g., nutrient concentration, water temperature, light intensity, salinity, water movement, stagnation and residence time, as well as several other variables. These environmental variables, in turn, have promoted the evolution and biosynthesis of strain-specific, gene-controlled metabolites (cyanotoxins) that are often harmful to aquatic and terrestrial life, including humans. Cyanotoxins are primarily produced intracellularly during the exponential growth phase. Release of toxins into water can occur during cell death or senescence but can also be due to evolutionary-derived or environmentally-mediated circumstances such as allelopathy or relatively sudden nutrient limitation. Consequently, when cyanobacterial blooms occur in drinking water resources, treatment has to remove both cyanobacteria (avoiding cell lysis and subsequent toxin release) and aqueous cyanotoxins previously released. Cells are usually removed with limited lysis by physical processes such as clarification or membrane filtration. However, aqueous toxins are usually removed by both physical retention, through adsorption on activated carbon or reverse osmosis, and chemical oxidation, through ozonation or chlorination. While the efficient oxidation of the more common cyanotoxins (microcystin, cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin and saxitoxin) has been extensively reported, the chemical and toxicological characterization of their by-products requires further investigation. In addition, future research should also investigate the removal of poorly considered cyanotoxins (β-methylamino-alanine, lyngbyatoxin or aplysiatoxin) as well as the economic impact of blooms.     

Novel brominated flame retardants: a review of their analysis, environmental fate and behaviour

This review summarises current knowledge about production volumes, physico-chemical properties, analysis, environmental occurrence, fate and behaviour and human exposure to the "novel" brominated flame retardants (NBFRs). We define the term NBFRs as relating to BFRs which are new to the market or newly/recently observed in the environment. Restrictions and bans on the use of some polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) formulations, in many jurisdictions, have created a market for the use of NBFRs. To date, most data on NBFRs have arisen as additional information generated by research designed principally to study more "traditional" BFRs, such as PBDEs. This has led to a wide variety of analytical approaches for sample extraction, extract purification and instrumental analysis of NBFRs. An overview of environmental occurrence in abiotic matrices, aquatic biota, terrestrial biota and birds is presented. Evidence concerning the metabolism and absorption of different NBFRs is reviewed. Human exposure to NBFRs via different exposure pathways is discussed, and research gaps related to analysis, environmental sources, fate, and behaviour and human exposure are identified.     

Occurrence and fate of hormone steroids in the environment

Hormone steroids are a group of endocrine disruptors, which are excreted by humans and animals. In this paper, we briefly review the current knowledge on the fate of these steroids in the environment. Natural estrogenic steroids estrone (E1), 17beta-estradiol (E2) and estriol (E3) all have a solubility of approximately 13 mg/l, whereas synthetic steroids 17alpha-ethynylestradiol (EE2) and mestranol (MeEE2) have a solubility of 4.8 and 0.3 mg/l, respectively. These steroids have a moderate binding on sediments and are reported to degrade rapidly in soil and water. Estrogenic steroids have been detected in effluents of sewage treatment plants (STPs) in different countries at concentrations ranging up to 70 ng/l for E1, 64 ng/l for E2, 18 ng/l for E3 and 42 ng/l for EE2. E2 concentrations in river waters from Japan, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands ranged up to 27 ng/l. In addition, E2 concentrations ranging from 6 to 66 ng/l have also been measured in mantled karst aquifers in northwest Arkansas. This contamination of ground water has been associated with poultry litter and cattle manure waste applied on the land. Although hormone steroids have been detected at a number of sources worldwide, currently, there is limited data on the environmental behaviour and fate of these hormone steroids in different environmental media. Consequently, the exposure and risk associated with these chemicals are not adequately understood.     

Simultaneous measurement of (226)Ra and (228)Ra in natural water by liquid scintillation counting

Several types of bottled drinking water originating from three different areas in Egypt are studied through measurement of radium activity, assessment of related annual dose for adults and finally to define the role of water quality on radium levels. The mean levels of (226)Ra activity range from 0.44 to 0.92 Bq/L and the mean levels of (228)Ra from 0.30 to 0.78 Bq/L, with related (226)Ra/(228)Ra ratios ranging from 2.61 to 0.56. Water types originating from the Eastern Nile Delta area are characterized by low (226)Ra levels and relatively high (228)Ra activity, presumably due to the muddy agricultural nature of this area, which is subject to water from several surface resources for irrigation. In general, the mean activity levels for both (226)Ra and (228)Ra are within those in drinking water in several other countries and the annual ingested dose is comparable with the typical range reported by UNSCEAR. Also, the effect of TDS, pH, calcium, bicarbonate, sulphate and chloride ion concentrations on radium levels is studied and discussed.     

湖泊型水源地管理研究——以苏州市太湖水源地为例

饮用水安全是最大的民生工程,也是自然资源管理研究的热点。基于实地调研、部门访谈和制度条文的梳理与分析,以苏州市太湖水源地为例研究湖泊型水源地管理体制。研究表明：我国水源地管理由国家、省、市、县的法律法规、规章和规范性文件构成相对完善的制度体系,具有水资源和水环境分割管理、流域管理和行政区管理交错的制度特征,初步具备了综合管理的架构;水源保护缺乏流域管治的思维,农村面源污染治理制度支撑不足;在管理手段上以命令控制型手段为主,经济激励与公众参与不足。建立水源地综合管理协调机制,完善经济激励手段,推进公众参与,实施水源地管理共同责任机制将有利于提高水源地管理效率     

Duty and Standards of Care for Drinking Water Regulation in Australia

The application of mandatory drinking water standards in Australia should ensure a basic water quality for all communities, with some standards written as a function of population. The main tenet of feasibility would be the capture of public benefits which foreseeably outweighed costs. Benefit-cost analysis can be a very valuable tool which aids in the decision process, however care must be taken to avoid institutional abuse or an over-positioned stature because of its applicative constraints.Many of the benefits associated with drinking water standards will often defy accurate itemization or monetization, and hence feasibility will frequently rely on approximations and a close analysis of case merits. Risk assessment is often used to estimate benefits accrued. Two common methods for valuing water quality are (a) cost of illness approaches, and (b) willingness to pay to avoid risk. The advantage of willingness to pay is that it engenders a larger interpretation of cost and quality value, and allows the community to rank preferences based on their willingness to avoid unnecessary risks.Given the technicalities and details in 'smart' water quality regulation which avoids unnecessary intrusion caused by ill-founded and unresolved clarity, lengthy drafting deliberations may often be necessary. The statutory and administrative structure of a future regulator is therefore a fundamental facet under-pinning the success of a comprehensive and responsive mandatory program. The process and rationale for regulatory development should be transparent and open, and this should include mandatory opportunities for public input during regulation drafting. Post inauguration mechanisms for suggestions on possible improvements and review of real world application should be considered important aspects of this process. Good models for comparison currently exist in the United States and Europe.     

中国进入WTO以来与欧盟棉花贸易的虚拟水资源总量研究

中国在与欧盟国家的商晶贸易中,直接进口的是初级农产品,但闻接进口的却是隐藏在这些农产最中的虚拟水.研究这些潜在的水资源,对缓解我国水资源压力,保障粮食安全具有重要的现实意义.本文采用联合国粮农组织FAO的CROPWAT Model计算模型,借助CropWat for Windows计算软件,从资源当量转换的角度出发,计算中国自进入WTO以来与欧盟国家的棉花贸易中水资源转换以及虚拟水贸易情况.计算结果表明,2003-2005年中国在与欧盟的棉花贸易中,间接进口了151.28×106m3的水资源,相当于节约了国内同等数量的水资源.本文可以为解决中国日益短缺的水资源问题提供有益参考.     

Arsenic contamination of groundwater in the Terai region of Nepal: an overview of health concerns and treatment options

A review of published information on the arsenic contamination of groundwater in the Terai regions of Nepal showed that the source was mainly geogenic due to the dissolution of the arsenic-bearing minerals. Clinical observations of patients in the arsenic affected districts revealed chronic arsenic poisoning from drinking water. Half a million people inhabiting the region are believed to have been exposed to arsenic levels greater than 50 microg/L in their drinking water. Thirty-one percent of the population (3.5 million) in the region are estimated to have been exposed to arsenic levels between 10 and 50 microg/L. Iron assisted biosand filters currently distributed and in operation are a suitable alternative to mitigate the interim arsenic standard of 50 microg/L, as set by the Nepal Government. Arsenic biosand filters were also effective in removing bacteria and viruses from drinking water in laboratory and field tests. However, groundwater treatment targeting cluster communities in the Terai region is the sustainable way of mitigating the arsenic problem.     

Balancing the health benefits and environmental risks of pharmaceuticals: Diclofenac as an example

Pharmaceuticals are designed to improve human and animal health, but even the most beneficial pharmaceuticals might raise some questions concerning the consequences of exposure to non-target organisms. To illustrate this situation and using diclofenac as a case-study, we analyze global consumption and occurrence data to identify hot spots of consumption without occurrence data, review the scientific literature on the harmful environmental effects to determine whether the observed concentrations in freshwater are of environmental concern, summarize the current pharmaceutical and environmental policies to highlight policy gaps, and suggest a series of research and policy recommendations, which can be summarized as follows: we need to improve the current knowledge on occurrence in freshwaters to properly implement environmental policies (i), diclofenac might pose a risk to non-target organisms in freshwater (ii); the harmful effects that some pharmaceuticals may have on the environment are not always addressed by environmental policies (iii).     

Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment: a review

Organic booster biocides were recently introduced as alternatives to organotin compounds in antifouling products, after restrictions imposed on the use of tributyltin (TBT) in 1987. Replacement products are generally based on copper metal oxides and organic biocides. This ban has led to an increase in alternative coating products containing the above biocides. The most commonly used biocides in antifouling paints are: Irgarol 1051, diuron, Sea-nine 211, dichlofluanid, chlorothalonil, zinc pyrithione, TCMS (2,3,3,6-tetrachloro-4-methylsulfonyl) pyridine, TCMTB [2-(thiocyanomethylthio) benzothiazole], and zineb. Since 1993, several studies have demonstrated the presence of these biocides in European coastal environment as a result of their increased use. More recently, the presence of these biocides was also revealed in waters from Japan, United States, Singapore, Australia and Bermuda. This paper reviews the currently available data on the occurrence of these biocides in the aquatic environment. Some data dealing with the environmental fate, partitioning, behaviour and risk assessment of antifouling paint booster biocides are also reported in order to discuss the detected levels of contamination.     

Survey of arsenic and its speciation in rice products such as breakfast cereals, rice crackers and Japanese rice condiments

Rice has been demonstrated to be one of the major contributors to arsenic (As) in human diets in addition to drinking water, but little is known about rice products as an additional source of As exposure. Rice products were analyzed for total As and a subset of samples were measured for arsenic speciation using high performance liquid chromatography interfaced with inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (HPLC-ICP-MS). A wide range of rice products had total and inorganic arsenic levels that typified those found in rice grain including, crisped rice, puffed rice, rice crackers, rice noodles and a range of Japanese rice condiments as well as rice products targeted at the macrobiotic, vegan, lactose intolerant and gluten intolerance food market. Most As in rice products are inorganic As (75.2-90.1%). This study provides a wider appreciation of how inorganic arsenic derived from rice products enters the human diet.     

Assessing the human health impacts of exposure to disinfection by-products — A critical review of concepts and methods

Understanding the public health implications of chemical contamination of drinking water is important for societies and their decision-makers. The possible population health impacts associated with exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) are of particular interest due to their potential carcinogenicity and their widespread occurrence as a result of treatments employed to control waterborne infectious disease.We searched the literature for studies that have attempted quantitatively to assess population health impacts and health risks associated with exposure to DBPs in drinking water. We summarised and evaluated these assessments in terms of their objectives, methods, treatment of uncertainties, and interpretation and communication of results.In total we identified 40 studies matching our search criteria. The vast majority of studies presented estimates of generic cancer and non-cancer risks based on toxicological data and methods that were designed with regulatory, health-protective purposes in mind, and therefore presented imprecise and biased estimates of health impacts. Many studies insufficiently addressed the numerous challenges to DBP risk assessment, failing to evaluate the evidence for a causal relationship, not appropriately addressing the complex nature of DBP occurrence as a mixture of chemicals, not adequately characterising exposure in space and time, not defining specific health outcomes, not accounting for characteristics of target populations, and not balancing potential risks of DBPs against the health benefits related with drinking water disinfection. Uncertainties were often poorly explained or insufficiently accounted for, and important limitations of data and methods frequently not discussed. Grave conceptual and methodological limitations in study design, as well as erroneous use of available dose–response data, seriously impede the extent to which many of these assessments contribute to understanding the public health implications of exposure to DBPs. In some cases, assessment results may cause unwarranted alarm among the public and potentially lead to poor decisions being made in sourcing, treatment, and provision of drinking water. We recommend that the assessment of public health impacts of DBPs should be viewed as a means of answering real world policy questions relating to drinking water quality, including microbial contaminants; that they should be conducted using the most appropriate and up-to-date data and methods, and that associated uncertainties and limitations should be accounted for using quantitative methods where appropriate.     

Occurrence,fate and effects of azoxystrobin in aquatic ecosystems: A review

The use of pesticides for crop protection may result in the presence of toxic residues in environmental matrices. In the aquatic environment, pesticides might freely dissolve in the water or bind to suspended matter and to the sediments, and might be transferred to the organisms' tissues during bioaccumulation processes, resulting in adverse consequences to non-target species. One such group of synthetic organic pesticides widely used worldwide to combat pathogenic fungi affecting plants is the strobilurin chemical group. Whereas they are designed to control fungal pathogens, their general modes of action are not specific to fungi. Consequently, they can be potentially toxic to a wide range of non-target organisms. The present work had the intent to conduct an extensive literature review to find relevant research on the occurrence, fate and effects of azoxystrobin, the first patent of the strobilurin compounds, in aquatic ecosystems in order to identify strengths and gaps in the scientific database. Analytical procedures and existing legislation and regulations were also assessed. Data gathered in the present review revealed that analytical reference standards for the most relevant environmental metabolites of azoxystrobin are needed. Validated confirmatory methods for complex matrices, like sediment and aquatic organisms' tissues, are very limited. Important knowledge of base-line values of azoxystrobin and its metabolites in natural tropical and estuarine/marine ecosystems is lacking. Moreover, some environmental concentrations of azoxystrobin found in the present review are above the Regulatory Acceptable Concentration (RAC) in what concerns risk to aquatic invertebrates and the No Observed Ecologically Adverse Effect Concentration (NOEAEC) reported for freshwater communities. The present review also showed that there are very few data on azoxystrobin toxicity to different aquatic organisms, especially in what concerns estuarine/marine organisms. Besides, toxicity studies mostly address azoxystrobin and usually neglect the more relevant environmental metabolites. Further work is also required in what concerns effects of exposure to multi-stressors, e.g. pesticide mixtures. Even though Log K_ow for azoxystrobin and R234886, the main metabolite of azoxystrobin in water, are below 3, the bio-concentration factor and the bioaccumulation potential for azoxystrobin are absent in the literature. Moreover, no single study on bioaccumulation and biomagnification processes was found in the present review.     

Viruses in surface and drinking waters

Over 114 different human enteric viruses are known. They are all excreted into sewage, and opportunities exist for them to find their way into water distribution systems. The characteristics of the illnesses caused by enteric viruses make their transmission by water difficult to recognize. Methods are not available for isolating all of the enteric viruses from water, so that finding any type of human virus in drinking water is an indication that other types may also be present. With improvements in technology, our laboratory has recently been able to detect group B coxsackieviruses, rotaviruses, and hepatitis A virus in chlorinated drinking water. At present, there are no uniform methods for concentrating, isolating, and identifying viruses in water. Emphasis should be placed on seeking uniformity in methods so that standards can be set for viruses in water.     

Drugs of abuse in surface and tap waters of the Tagus River basin: Heterogeneous photo-Fenton process is effective in their degradation

This work investigates for the first time the occurrence of drugs of abuse and metabolites in surface waters from the Tagus River on its way through the province of Toledo (downstream Madrid metropolitan area) and in drinking waters in two nearby cities. Some of the studied drugs are used for therapeutic purposes but they can also be consumed as illicit drugs. The results of this preliminary study have revealed the presence of 12 out of 22 drugs of abuse analyzed in fluvial water at concentrations ranging from 1.14 to 40.9 ng/L. The largest concentrations corresponded to the anxiolytics diazepam and lorazepam, the cocaine metabolite benzoilecgonine, the amphetamine-like compound ephedrine, and the methadone metabolite EDDP. All these substances, except for lorazepam, were detected in all the sampling points. Traces of methadone and ephedrine were detected in some samples of tap water. Despite the low concentrations of these pollutants, effects on wildlife or human health cannot be disregarded, especially on vulnerable population. Thus, the treatment of these substances using a heterogeneous photo-Fenton process has been evaluated, rendering a remarkable effectiveness for their degradation.