When do emotionally exhausted employees speak up? Exploring the potential curvilinear relationship between emotional exhaustion and voice

Two studies were conducted to address the potential nonlinear relationship between emotional exhaustion and voice. Study 1 developed and tested a model rooted in conservation of resources theory in which responses to emotional exhaustion are determined by individual‐level and group‐level conditions that influence the perceived safety and efficacy of voice and drive prohibitive voice behaviors by giving rise to either resource‐conservation‐based or resource‐acquisition‐based motivation. Specifically, there was a curvilinear (U‐shaped) relationship between emotional exhaustion and prohibitive voice under conditions of (i) high job security and (ii) high interactional justice climate, but a linearly negative relationship when these resources were low. Study 2 replicated and extended these findings to include an empirical examination of these effects on promotive versus prohibitive voice. Results confirmed the findings of Study 1, provided evidence of differences in the nomological networks of promotive and prohibitive voice, and indicated that prohibitive voice is more salient to the experience of high emotional strain. Implications of the findings and areas for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Good acting requires a good cast: A meso‐level model of deep acting in work teams

This study proposes and tests a meso‐level model of deep acting in work teams that draws on emotional contagion theory to explain how shared means of complying with display rules can arise in work teams. We argue that the presence of influential deep actors can lead to greater convergence (lower dispersion) on individual deep acting in the team. That is, team members behave more similarly. When a team has greater convergence, deep acting by individual members should be related to lower emotional exhaustion and higher job satisfaction and in‐role performance. In a sample of mature work teams, these hypotheses received general support. Our findings suggested that team‐level deep acting effects can foster benefits for team members (lower emotional exhaustion and higher satisfaction) and organizations (higher job performance). Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Significant work events and counterproductive work behavior: The role of fairness,emotions, and emotion regulation

In this diary study, we investigated multi‐level predictors of daily counterproductive work behavior (CWB) relying on the theoretical frameworks of affective events theory and the emotion‐centered model of CWB. We assessed significant work events, event‐based fairness perceptions, negative emotional reactions to work events, and employee CWB over a 10‐day period. We tested within‐person relations predicting CWB, and cross‐level moderating effects of two emotion regulation strategies (suppression and reappraisal). Results from a multi‐level path analysis revealed that significant work events had both direct and indirect effects on negative emotional reactions. Further, negative emotional reactions in turn mediated the relationships between significant work events and all forms of daily CWB as well as the relationship between event‐based fairness perceptions and daily CWB‐O. Results also supported the moderating role of reappraisal emotion regulation strategy on relations between significant work events and negative emotional reactions. Less support, however, was found for the moderating influence of suppression on the link between negative emotional reactions and CWB. Among the broad work event categories we identified, our supplemental analyses revealed that negative work events involving interactions with supervisors elicited the highest levels of employee negative emotional reactions. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Masters of the long haul: Pursuing long‐term work goals

We investigate work motivation in the unstudied domain of individuals who pursue very long‐term goals. We highlight the fact that the preponderance of research findings on the psychology of work motivation is based on short‐term studies and discuss the potential relevance to long‐term motivation of literatures including long‐term thinking and time horizons, long‐term goals and goal pursuit, and self‐regulation. We adopt the qualitative research strategy of theory elaboration, with a specific intention of elaborating goal‐setting theory. Analysis of interview data from a unique sample of scientists and others pursuing goals spanning decades or more yielded a structure of psychological factors that can enhance, support, and sustain motivation for the long term. Reconciling our findings with existing goal theories, we develop an integrative model of motivating factors and self‐regulation processes underlying long‐term goal pursuit. We discuss the implications, including an expanded focus for our field on motivating people for the long run. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An empirical analysis of surface acting in intra‐organizational relationships

Prior research analyzing surface acting—employees' regulation of emotional expressions—has mostly focused on the interactions between front‐line employees and their customers in service industries and paid very little attention to intra‐organizational relationships. With an aim to shed light on this important yet relatively unexplored area, I developed a theoretical model analyzing the antecedents and outcomes of surface acting within organizations, by drawing on the sociometer theory and self‐presentation theory frameworks. To test the model, I conducted a cross‐level field study in a sample of 65 work groups and 478 employees in two organizations, located in a large city in Northern California. I have collected the data from two sources, including employees and their supervisors who rated their performance. Results indicated that employees were more likely to engage in surface acting when their affective traits and personal goals were less congruent with work environment. Surface acting was also positively related to perceived organizational politics and self‐monitoring. As for outcomes, surface acting was positively related to emotional exhaustion and negatively to performance. I discuss limitations, implications, and future research direction. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

On a combined theory of pay level satisfaction

For decades, research on pay level satisfaction has focused on two theories and one approach: the direct link theory, the discrepancy theory, and the no‐difference‐scores approach. However, there are still unsolved puzzles facing pay level satisfaction research. We develop a combined theory to consider the impact of the interaction of reported pay and pay discrepancy. With this newly developed theory, we expect that (a) both reported pay and pay discrepancy have main effects on pay level satisfaction; (b) reported pay and pay discrepancy also interact with each other, in that the effect of pay discrepancy on pay level satisfaction decreases as pay level increases; (c) equitable payment is more related to pay level dissatisfaction when pay level is low; and (d) overpayment in general is related to pay level satisfaction, not dissatisfaction. An empirical study (N = 481) using four types of comparison standards was conducted, and the results supported our predictions. The findings of our study have important implications for both academic research and management practice.     

Empirical examination of the individual‐level personality‐based theory of self‐management failure

The individual‐level personality‐based theory of self‐management failure posits that personality predisposes individuals to self‐defeating behavior that, in turn, leads to self‐management failure (Renn, Allen, Fedor, & Davis, 2005). To provide a partial test of the theory, a model is hypothesized that operationalized personality with neuroticism and conscientiousness of the Big Five personality dimensions; self‐defeating behavior with inability to delay gratification, procrastination, and emotional self‐absorption; and self‐management with personal goal setting, monitoring, and operating. The model was tested using data collected from 286 working employees and structural equations analysis. Results supported nine of 11 theory‐derived hypotheses. As hypothesized, high neuroticism was associated with improper personal goal setting, monitoring, and operating; and emotional self‐absorption and procrastination accounted for the relationship between high neuroticism and ineffective self‐management. In addition, low conscientiousness was associated with inferior self‐management practices, and inability to delay gratification and procrastination partially explained the relationship between low conscientiousness and poor self‐management. The findings provide new insight into how high neuroticism and low conscientiousness may contribute to self‐management failure. Theoretical and practical implications of the study are discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exploring the activation dimension of affect in organizations: A focus on trait‐level activation,climate‐level activation,and work‐related outcomes

This study explores the activation dimension of affect in organizations by focusing on both individual employees and their work climate. Drawing on affect research and demands‐abilities fit perspective, I have developed a model predicting that climate‐level activation would deplete employees' emotional resources and trait‐level action would function as an inner resource helping employees buffer themselves from their work demands. The results of a cross‐level study, conducted in a sample of 257 employees and their supervisors within 40 work units across 11 organizations, supported all but one of the hypotheses. Employees whose trait‐level activation was lower than the activation level of their work climate experienced higher levels of emotional exhaustion and thus were more likely to disengage from their work in forms of increased surface acting with their coworkers and psychological withdrawal, and reduced affective commitment to and intention to remain in their organization. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Best‐practice recommendations for estimating interaction effects using meta‐analysis

One of the key advantages of meta‐analysis (i.e., a quantitative literature review) over a narrative literature review is that it allows for formal tests of interaction effects—namely, whether the relationship between two variables is contingent upon the value of another (moderator) variable. Interaction effects play a central role in organizational science research because they highlight boundary conditions of a theory: Conditions under which relationships change in strength and/or direction. This article describes procedures for estimating interaction effects using meta‐analysis, distills the technical literature for a general readership of organizational science researchers, and includes specific best‐practice recommendations regarding actions researchers can take before and after data collection to improve the accuracy of substantive conclusions regarding interaction effects investigated meta‐analytically. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of job-related stress on medical center employee communicator style

Founded on the assumption that communicator style is situationally and contextually influenced, this study investigates the effects of job-related stress on communicator style. It was specifically designed to measure the effects of job-related stress factors on employee communicator style within the context of a medical center organization. Three central research questions are posed: (1) what, if any, meaningful differences in communicator style can be found from general work conditions to stress-specific conditions; (2) do different stress conditions give rise to meaningful differences in communicator style; (3) what communicator style differences exist among three major medical center employee hierarchies in response to stress-specific situations. The results indicate that communicator style in the stress-specific sample was significantly more dominant, open, attentive but less dramatic and friendly. Multivariate analysis revealed that communicator style accounted for the greatest differences between employees who were experiencing stress due to being unprepared to perform their work role. All role-related stress variables were more powerfully discriminated by the communicator style variables than department/unit stress (stress at the work group level). Finally, communicator style variables provided statistically significant discrimination of three occupational groups: physicians, administrators/managers, and line employees. Physicians appeared to be more assertive and less supportive in their communication; administrators/managers were assertive but also supportive while line employees were both submissive and supportive in their communicator style. These three employee groups were also discriminated using the job-related stress variables. Although statistically significant findings were obtained, the discriminant functions were less powerful than the communicator style discriminant functions.     

Climate as a group level phenomenon: Theoretical assumptions and methodological considerations

Climate is a group‐level phenomenon that should be measured and studied at the group level. The group level has theoretical and methodological advantages over the individual level. In this paper, I theoretically review the assumptions in measuring climate at the individual and group levels and demonstrate that the group‐level assumptions are more adequate for climate research because of their influences in exposure to events, interpretation of events, and preservation of perceptions. Methodologically, I discuss advantages in group‐level climate measurement accuracy that are based on multiple evaluators of climate and I suggest group aggregation is an organizational form of “wisdom of the crowds.” Finally, I point to three topics that remain to be investigated to understand climate at the group level better. The first is use of variability measures to compensate for information that is lost in aggregation. The second is challenging the assumption that formal organizational structure defines the group boundaries. I suggest that other levels of analysis apply to group‐level climate measurement and demonstrate the use of informal, more natural groups as an additional level. Third, I point to recently developed statistical procedures that can aid the study of climate perception emergence over time.     

Learning more by crossing levels: evidence from airplanes,hospitals, and orchestras

Scholars generally conduct research at a single level of analysis (such as the individual, the group, or the organization level), although they often turn to the next‐lower level for explanatory mechanisms. I suggest that robust understanding of social and organizational dynamics requires attention to higher as well as lower levels of analysis. The benefits of research and theory that ‘brackets’ one's focal phenomenon by attending to constructs at both higher and lower levels of analyses are illustrated with findings from research on aircraft cockpit crews, hospital patient care teams, and professional musical ensembles. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于演化博弈的应急医疗物资质量保障策略研究

为保障突发公共卫生事件时应急医疗物资质量,满足医院物资需求,运用演化博弈理论构建政府、公立医院和医疗物资供应商三方博弈主体决策模型,并求解各方决策的纯策略纳什均衡解和混合策略纳什均衡解,探讨常态化和非常态化下三方博弈主体合作机制的动态演化过程。研究结果表明：减少政府监管成本并加大对医疗物资供应商的奖惩力度对供应商诚信销售效果不明显;减少供应商诚信销售成本、增加其隐性收益、加大医院投诉概率,可促使供应商诚信销售,同时提升政府公信力,最终三方博弈主体策略均收敛。研究结果可为突发公共卫生事件中保障医疗物资质量提出对策与建议。     

Intra‐individual variability in job complexity over time: Examining the effect of job complexity trajectory on employee job strain

Drawing on gestalt characteristics theory, we advance the literature on the effect of job complexity on employee well‐being by considering intra‐individual variability of job complexity over time. Specifically, we examine how the trend, or trajectory, of job complexity over time can explain unique variance of employee job strain. Across two longitudinal data sets, we consistently find that, with the average level of job complexity during a given period held constant, a positive job complexity trajectory (i.e., an increasing trend in complexity) is associated with higher employee job strain. Based on job‐demand‐control theory and the exposure‐reactivity model, we further establish that job autonomy and employee emotional stability jointly moderate the relationship between job complexity trajectory and employee job strain. Specifically, for employees with high emotional stability, job autonomy mitigates the job strain brought by positive job complexity trajectory, whereas for employees with low emotional stability, job autonomy does not help to reduce the adverse effect of the increasing trend. These findings not only contribute to extend the understanding of the job complexity – strain relationship, but also suggest a promising, dynamic avenue to study the effects of work characteristics on employee well‐being as well as other outcomes. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Emotional exhaustion and job performance: The moderating roles of distributive justice and positive affect

In a field study among 241 shop assistants and their 59 supervisors in fashion chain stores in Mainland China and Hong Kong, we found a negative relationship between emotional exhaustion and four indicators of job performance (overall performance, emotional display, OCB‐O, and OCB‐I) when employees perceived high levels of distributive justice in the exchange relationship with the organization, whereas emotional exhaustion was unrelated to any of these performance types when employees perceived low levels of distributive justice. In addition, this negative two‐way interaction effect of emotional exhaustion by distributive justice on job performance was buffered when employees were high on positive affect and intensified when they were low on positive affect. We used the conservation of resources (COR) theory, the attribution model of justice, and the broaden‐and‐build theory of positive emotions to clarify and discuss the moderating roles of distributive justice and positive affect in the relationship between emotional exhaustion and job performance. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A multilevel model of emotional skills,communication performance,and task performance in teams

There is increasing research regarding the influence of emotions on teamwork. In this study, we use a multilevel approach to examine how team members' use of emotion‐related skills affects team task performance and communication performance within the team. We measured individual self‐reported emotional skills prior to team formation and then collected peer‐rated individual communication performance and independently rated team task performance eight weeks later. Although there was no influence at the individual level between emotional skills and performance, team‐level emotional skills positively predicted team task performance scores. At the cross level, team‐level emotional skills predicted individual‐level communication performance. These findings emphasize the importance of distinct team emotional skills in shaping both team performance and individual team member performance. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Supervisors' emotional exhaustion and abusive supervision: The moderating roles of perceived subordinate performance and supervisor self‐monitoring

Drawing from conservation of resources theory, this study aims to create new knowledge on the antecedents of abusive supervision. Results across 2 independent field studies within a manufacturing context (Study 1) and a customer service context (Study 2) consistently demonstrated a 3‐way interaction pattern, such that supervisors' experiences of emotional exhaustion, perceived subordinate performance, and self‐monitoring were jointly associated with subordinates' abusive supervision perceptions. A supplementary scenario experiment further corroborated this pattern. Together, the present studies illustrate a contingency model of abusive supervision's origins, highlighting emotional exhaustion as an important risk factor that is particularly likely to trigger abusive behavior among supervisors with lower (rather than higher) self‐monitoring who are faced with a relatively underperforming subordinate. As such, this research advances the abusive supervision literature by offering new insights into the complex resource conservation processes that may give rise to subordinates' abuse perceptions.     

The indirect relations of workplace incivility with emotional exhaustion and supportive behaviors via self‐blame: The moderating roles of observed incivility and trait emotional control

Drawing from the social cognitive theory of self‐regulation, we develop a model linking experienced incivility to emotional exhaustion and supportive behaviors via self‐blame, with observed incivility experienced by coworkers as a first‐stage moderator and trait emotional control as a second‐stage moderator. We contend that employees will experience self‐blame if they perceive themselves to be distinct targets of incivility (i.e., observed incivility experienced by others is low). Self‐blame can potentially trigger prosocial responses for improving the situation, but self‐blaming targets rarely respond in a prosocial manner because rational attempts to do so are thwarted by deleterious negative emotions accompanying self‐blame. We argue that trait emotional control provides resources for managing these negative emotions to unleash a bright side of self‐blame, such that the relation of self‐blame with prosocial responses (i.e., being supportive to coworkers) will be more positive and the relation of self‐blame with emotional exhaustion will be less positive for individuals with high (vs. low) trait emotional control. Multiwave data collected from a sample of 220 police officers largely support our hypotheses, indicating that the indirect relation of experienced incivility with supportive behaviors via self‐blame is strongest at lower levels of observed incivility and higher levels of emotional control.     

Time‐based differences in the effects of positive and negative affectivity on perceived supervisor support and organizational commitment among newcomers

Building on the broaden‐and‐build theory and research on the negativity bias, this study examines how trait affectivity, as a stable predisposition predicting the pattern of emotional responding, shapes newcomers' perceptions of supervisor support and experience of organizational commitment. Using latent growth modeling and data collected at four points in time from newcomers (N = 158), we found the initial level of perceived supervisor support to mediate a negative relationship between negative affectivity and the level of commitment. Moreover, although newcomers experienced a general decrease in perceived supervisor support and a related decrease in commitment, those with high positive affectivity experienced a weaker decrease in perceived supervisor support, which led to a weaker decrease in commitment. Incidentally, positive affectivity was also positively related to the initial level of commitment. Two post hoc studies indicated that positive and negative affectivity exerted their effects controlling for state affect and replicated the relationship between change in perceived support and commitment. We discuss how these findings inform our understanding of trait affectivity's influence on newcomers' work attitudes.