A rigorous test of a model of employees' resource recovery mechanisms during a weekend

Employees' recovery from the effects of occupational stress can be affected by their actions during time away from work. Conservation of resources theory argues that a key to an effective stress recovery process is the replenishment of resources during off‐work time (a weekend in the present study). We test a model of the stress recovery process during a weekend whereby two recovery mechanisms (weekend activities and recovery experiences) improve two personal resources (self‐regulatory capacity and state optimism), subsequently affecting psychological outcomes (work engagement and burnout) at the start of the next workweek. Employees (n = 233) from various jobs responded to online surveys before and after a weekend. Controlling for pre‐weekend resource levels and psychological outcomes assessed on Friday, the two weekend stress recovery mechanisms (weekend activities and recovery experiences) contributed to improving or maintaining self‐regulatory and optimism resources on Monday. Of note, psychological detachment may result in less rather than more of the resource of state optimism on Monday. Monday resource levels were linked to improved work engagement and burnout. As proposed by conservation of resources theory, employees can benefit from participating in activities that replenish resources necessary to meet work demands upon returning to work after a weekend. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Recovery from work‐related effort: A meta‐analysis

This meta‐analytic study examines the antecedents and outcomes of four recovery experiences: psychological detachment, relaxation, mastery, and control. Using 299 effect sizes from 54 independent samples (N = 26,592), we extend theory by integrating recovery experiences into the challenge–hindrance framework, creating a more comprehensive understanding of how both after‐work recovery and work characteristics collectively relate to well‐being. The results of meta‐analytic path estimates indicate that challenge demands have stronger negative relationships with psychological detachment, relaxation, and control recovery experiences than hindrance demands, and job resources have positive relationships with relaxation, mastery, and control recovery experiences. Psychological detachment after work has a stronger negative relationship with fatigue than relaxation or control experiences, whereas control experiences after work have a stronger positive relationship with vigor than detachment or relaxation experiences. Additionally, a temporally driven model with recovery experiences as a partial mediator explains up to 62% more variance in outcomes (ΔR² = .12) beyond work characteristics models, implying that both work characteristics and after‐work recovery play an important role in determining employee well‐being.     

Micro‐break activities at work to recover from daily work demands

Recovery literature has focused predominantly on recovery processes outside the workplace during nonwork times. Considering a lack of research on momentary recovery at work, we examined four categories of micro‐break activities—relaxation, nutrition‐intake, social, and cognitive activities—as possible recovery mechanisms in the workplace. Using effort recovery and conservation of resources theories, we hypothesized that micro‐break activities attenuate the common stressor–strain relationship between work demands and negative affect. For 10 consecutive workdays, 86 South Korean office workers (842 data points) reported their specific daily work demands right after their lunch hour (Time 1) and then reported their engagement in micro‐break activities during the afternoon and negative affective state at the end of the workday (Time 2). As expected, relaxation and social activities reduced the effects of work demands on end‐of‐workday negative affect. Nutrition intake of beverages and snacks did not have a significant moderating effect. Post hoc analyses, however, revealed that only caffeinated beverages reduced work demands effects on negative affect. Unexpectedly, cognitive activities aggravated the effects of work demands on negative affect. The findings indicate not only the importance of taking micro‐breaks but also which types of break activities are beneficial for recovery. Implications, limitations, and future research directions are discussed. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of affective traits and affective states in disputants' motivation and behavior during episodes of organizational conflict

This study investigated the effects of individuals' affective traits (i.e., affect intensity and affect disposition) and affective states (i.e., positive and negative mood) on their motivations and behavior during episodes of organizational conflict. Two hundred and twenty‐three student employees from a variety of jobs and organizations kept daily records, for a three day period, of their conflict experiences at work. The results of hierarchical linear modelling indicated that employees' affective traits and affective states had parallel effects on the conflict management process. Subsequent analyses revealed the source of this parallelism: employees' moods on the day of the conflict fully mediated the effects of their affective disposition on the conflict process variables. The results are discussed in terms of their theoretical significance and practical implications. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Examination of the combined effects of work values and early work experiences on organizational commitment

We tested the hypothesis that the influence of early work experiences on organization commitment would be moderated by the value employees place on these experiences. We measured work values in two samples of recent university graduates prior to organizational entry, and obtained measures of commensurate work experiences and three forms of commitment (affective, continuance, and normative: Allen and Meyer, 1990) on different occasions following entry. Regression analyses revealed that values and experiences did interact in the prediction of affective commitment and normative commitment, but that the nature of the interaction was different for different work value/experience combinations. The findings provide some challenge to the common sense assumption that positive work experiences will have the strongest effect on commitment among those who most value such experiences. Implications for research and practice are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fathers' work experiences,the father-child relationship and children's behaviour

The effects of fathers' subjective work experiences on their children's behaviour have been largely neglected, despite increasing recognition accorded to the fathers' role in all aspects of child development. The present study redresses this issue by assessing whether (a) fathers' work experiences are related to children's behaviour, (b) the father-child relationship moderates the effects of fathers' work experiences on children's behaviour, and (c) specific child behaviours are associated with paternal work experiences. One hundred and forty two fathers (M age = 39.55 years) and their eldest child (M age = 9.2 years; 66 boys, 76 girls) participated. Moderated multiple regressions demonstrated that fathers' job satisfaction was related to specific child behaviours, viz. conduct problems and hyperactivity. More importantly, the father-child relationship moderated both these relationships: Where fathers were dissatisfied with their jobs, conduct problems and hyperactivity were significantly greater when the father-child relationship was of a higher quality. Implications for studying the effects of both mothers' and fathers' work experiences on their children's behaviour are drawn.     

When work is wanted after hours: Testing weekly stress of information communication technology demands using boundary theory

Information communication technologies (ICTs; e.g., smartphones) enable employees to work anywhere and anytime, blurring work and family boundaries. Building on this trend, this study draws from work–family border/boundary theory to examine antecedents and consequences of employees' weekly experiences of ICT demands (i.e., being accessible and contacted for work after hours via ICTs). A sample of 546 elementary teachers completed a registration survey and a weekly diary for 5 weeks. Multilevel modeling results suggest that ICT demands as a form of work intrusion in the home can constitute a source of significant weekly strain (i.e., negative rumination, negative affect, and insomnia). As border crossers, teachers' adoption of a technological boundary tactic (i.e., keeping work email alerts turned off on mobile phones) was related to lower weekly ICT demands. As important border keepers at work, school principals' work–family support was related to teachers' lower weekly ICT demands, whereas parents' after-hours boundary expectations were related to teachers' higher weekly ICT demands. Moreover, teachers' boundary control was found as a mediating mechanism by which the two border keepers influenced teachers' ICT demands−negative rumination link. That is, teachers who received fewer boundary expectations and/or more work–family support had greater boundary control, which in turn buffered the ICT demands–negative rumination relationship.     

Daily performance at work: feeling recovered in the morning as a predictor of day‐level job performance

This study examined the state of being recovered in the morning (i.e., feeling physically and mentally refreshed) as a predictor of daily job performance and daily compensatory effort at work. Ninety‐nine employees from public service organizations completed a general survey and two daily surveys on pocket computers over the course of one workweek. Hierarchical linear modeling showed that being recovered in the morning was positively related to daily task performance, personal initiative, and organizational citizenship behavior and negatively related to daily compensatory effort at work. Relationships between the state of being recovered and day‐specific job performance were moderated by job control. For persons with a high level of job control, the relationship between being recovered and daily performance was stronger. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rested,friendly, and engaged: The role of daily positive collegial interactions at work

This diary study examined within‐person effects of positive work and off‐work experiences on daily work engagement. Assessing the gain cycle assumption of conservation of resources theory, we investigated the relationship of nighttime recovery experiences and subsequent resources including elevated sleep quality and morning positive affect; the relationship of morning positive affect with positive collegial interactions and subsequent work engagement; and the relationship of work engagement with nighttime recovery experiences. Sixty‐nine employees completed 3 daily questionnaires over 5 consecutive working days. Multilevel analyses revealed that sleep quality positively predicted morning positive affect, which in turn predicted work engagement directly and also indirectly through having positive interactions with colleagues. Work engagement positively predicted nighttime recovery experiences, whereas nighttime recovery experiences were not related to sleep quality or morning positive affect the next day. Overall, on days after a good night's sleep, individuals feel more positive, bring this positivity to their workplace, reach out to their workplace colleagues, and are in turn more likely to be engaged in their work. Additionally, on days when individuals experience higher levels of positive collegial interactions at work and in turn higher work engagement, they are likely to enjoy better recovery experiences.     

Are there any job resources capable of moderating the effect of physical demands on work ability? A study among kindergarten teachers

Background. It is recognized that teaching in a preschool context is physically demanding. Despite this, the consequences of physical demands on psychophysical health (including work ability) are significantly understudied among kindergarten teachers. Objectives. The aim of the present study is to examine (a) the association between physical demands and work ability and (b) whether psychosocial job resources buffer the negative impact of physical demands among kindergarten teachers. Method. A total of 426 kindergarten teachers employed in the municipal educational services of a city in northwest Italy filled out a self-reported questionnaire. Results. High association was found between physical demand and work ability. Moderated hierarchical regressions showed that decision authority, skill discretion, reward and meaning of work buffer the hampering effect of physical demands and work ability. No buffering effects were observed for support from superiors and colleagues. Conclusion. The present study has relevant, practical implications, highlighting the importance of investing in interventions encompassing a holistic perspective (e.g., psychosocial and ergonomic) in order to effectively combat the hampering effect of physical demands on work ability.     

Predictive effects of occupational and marital stress on the mental health of a male workforce

This study examined the predictive contribution of occupational and marital stress to the development of symptomatolgoy, affective disorder, and alcohol-related problems in a sample of 325 male power plant employees interviewed at baseline and one-year follow up. After controlling for known clinical and social risk factors, we found statistically significant predictive effects of job demands on affective disorder and job decision latitude on alcohol problems. In addition, the specific combination of high job demands with low decision latitude was important in predicting the occurrence of alcohol problems. Marital stress was not predictive of poorer mental health. The analyses provided only minimal support for a stress-buffering rote of social support.     

Antecedents and consequences of collective psychological ownership: The validation of a conceptual model

We investigate team member feelings of collective psychological ownership (CPO) over teamwork products, the psychological paths that lead to it, and its impact on team workers' evaluations of team effectiveness, turnover intentions, and intentions to champion teamwork products. We focus on the teamwork product as an important target of ownership feelings, building on theories of self-extension, psychological ownership, and team emergent states. In Study 1, we validate measures for three ownership activating experiences (OAE) that have been proposed as paths to CPO (control over, intimate knowledge regarding, and investment in the teamwork product) using two samples of individual team workers (n = 210 and n = 140). In Study 2 (n = 183) and Study 3 (n = 200), we use surveys and a multiwave design to show that team workers' feelings of CPO mediate the relationship between investment in and intimate knowledge regarding the product and team effectiveness evaluations, team turnover intentions, and intentions to champion the work product. In Study 4 (n = 48 teams), CPO was predicted by the ownership activating experiences, at the team level. This research additionally highlights the benefits to organizations of creating conditions for the emergence of employee feelings of shared ownership over teamwork products.     

Exploring the activation dimension of affect in organizations: A focus on trait‐level activation,climate‐level activation,and work‐related outcomes

This study explores the activation dimension of affect in organizations by focusing on both individual employees and their work climate. Drawing on affect research and demands‐abilities fit perspective, I have developed a model predicting that climate‐level activation would deplete employees' emotional resources and trait‐level action would function as an inner resource helping employees buffer themselves from their work demands. The results of a cross‐level study, conducted in a sample of 257 employees and their supervisors within 40 work units across 11 organizations, supported all but one of the hypotheses. Employees whose trait‐level activation was lower than the activation level of their work climate experienced higher levels of emotional exhaustion and thus were more likely to disengage from their work in forms of increased surface acting with their coworkers and psychological withdrawal, and reduced affective commitment to and intention to remain in their organization. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of transition stress: a relocation study

Survey participants (N=175) were drawn from six branches of a major British supermarket chain. Employees from three branches, who had been selected for transfer to new stores, were surveyed before and after relocation to examine the impact of this transition on individual well‐being. A comparison sample of employees, drawn from similar stores but not involved in relocation, was also surveyed. Cross‐sectional multiple regression analyses found that psychological distress was related to both work demands and personal characteristics (gender, neuroticism, locus of control, and social desirability response). Furthermore, path analysis revealed that after controlling for prior symptom levels, distress during the relocation period was predicted independently by the relocation and by work demands. Although in the present study it was not possible to account for differences in outcomes between new and comparison store employees in terms of changes in measured work characteristics, the negative impact of relocation was found to be buffered by perceptions of control and social support. Additionally, the impact of high work demands was buffered by Type B personal characteristics. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fathers' work experiences effect children's behaviors via job-related affect and parenting behaviors

We suggest that fathers' work experiences (decision latitude, job demands, job insecurity and interrole conflict) indirectly influence children's behaviors (acting out, shyness and school competence) through their sequential effects on job-related affect (job satisfaction, negative job-related mood and job tension) and parenting behaviors (punishing, rejecting and authoritative behaviors). Data on work experiences, job-related affect and parenting behaviors were obtained from 189 fathers; teachers provided ratings of the children's behaviors. Path analysis provided support for the proposed model. Conceptual implications and suggestions for future research on fathers' employment and the links between work and family are discussed.     

Underemployment,job attitudes,and turnover intentions

We surveyed three distinct samples of employees (Ns of 238, 102, and 981) in order to examine relations among various types of underemployment, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions. Each dimension of underemployment is explored as a case of poor person‐job fit, and the fit literature is used to produce hypotheses about these relations. We also developed and validated the 9‐item Scale of Perceived Overqualification (SPOQ) to tap employee perceptions of surplus education, experience, and KSAs (knowledge, skills, and abilities). In general, perceptions of underemployment were associated with poor job satisfaction, particularly for facets with a direct causal relationship with the specific dimension of underemployment, such as overqualification and satisfaction with work. Perceived overqualification was also related to lower affective commitment, and higher intentions to turnover. For part‐time work, negative attitudes were only found when employees expressed a preference for full‐time work; a similar trend was not found for temporary workers, however. Implications for theory, research, and practice are delineated. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Family–work conflict and job performance: A diary study of boundary conditions and mechanisms

In this study, we used a within‐person daily research paradigm to examine the relationship between daily family–work conflict (FWC) and daily job performance. On the basis of theory on dynamic behavior, we hypothesized that concentration serves as a mechanism through which daily FWC impairs daily job performance. We further predicted that psychological detachment from work during time‐off (i.e., mentally switching off) buffers the negative relationship between daily FWC and daily job performance. Ninety‐five employees completed daily surveys over one workweek. Multilevel modeling results showed that daily FWC was negatively associated with daily job performance and that concentration mediated this relationship. Furthermore, general psychological detachment, but not daily psychological detachment, buffered the negative relationship between daily FWC and daily job performance. The current findings suggest that daily FWC has negative performance implications and that the general level rather than the daily level of psychological detachment from work helps alleviate the negative implications. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

General self‐efficacy and self‐esteem: toward theoretical and empirical distinction between correlated self‐evaluations

To test whether general self‐efficacy and self‐esteem relate differently to motivational and affective constructs, we collected data from samples in academic and work settings. Results suggest that general self‐efficacy is more highly related to motivational variables than is self‐esteem, whereas self‐esteem is more highly related to affective variables than is general self‐efficacy, as hypothesized. Furthermore, results support the notion that motivational and affective states differentially mediate the relationships of general self‐efficacy and self‐esteem with task performance. These results confirm the theoretical distinction between general self‐efficacy and self‐esteem and suggest that failure to distinguish between them might exact a price in terms of precision, validity, and understanding of determinants of performance. Implications for research and practice in organizations are discussed. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Change in job conditions,change in psychological distress,and gender: a longitudinal study of dual-earner couples

Building on the Job-Strain Theory, we estimated three relationships in a random sample of 201 full-time employed men and women in dual-earner couples interviewed three times over a 2-year period. We first estimated the main effects relationships between change over time in employees' experiences of job demands and job control and change over time in psychological distress. Then we estimated the interaction effects relationship of change in job demands on the relationship between change in job control and change in distress. Finally, we estimated the interaction effects of gender on these relationships. Job control was disaggregated into two conceptually distinct job conditions: skill discretion and decision authority. Controlling for other potentially stressful job conditions such as pay adequacy, job security, and relations with supervisor, as well as trait anxiety (an indicator of negative affectivity), change over time in job demands and skill discretion, but not decision authority, was related to change over time in psychological distress. Equally, for full-time employed women and men in dual-earner couples, if concerns about having to do dull, monotonous work increase over time, distress increases; if concerns about having to work under pressure of time and conflicting demands increase over time, distress increases. Finally, neither average skill discretion nor change over time in skill discretion moderated the relationship between job demands and psychological distress. Thus, at every level of skill discretion, high job demands were related to high distress. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.