Role of mycorrhizal fungi and phosphorus in the arsenic tolerance of basin wildrye

Revegetation of arsenic (As)-rich mine spoils is often impeded by the lack of plant species tolerant of high As concentrations and low nutrient availability. Basin wildrye [Leymus cinereus (Scribner & Merr.) A. L?ve] has been observed to establish naturally in soils with elevated As content and thus may be useful for the stabilization of As-contaminated soils. An experiment was conducted to evaluate how variable phosphorus (P) concentrations and inoculation with site-specific arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi influence As tolerance of basin wildrye. Basin wildrye was grown in sterile sand in the greenhouse for 16 weeks. Pots of sterile sand were amended to create one of four rates of As (0, 3, 15, or 50 mg As kg(-1)), two rates of P (3 or 15 mg P kg(-1)), and +/-mycorrhizal inoculation in a 2 x 4 x 2 factorial arrangement. After 16 weeks of growth, plants were harvested, shoots and roots thoroughly washed, and the tissue analyzed for total shoot biomass, total root and shoot As and P concentrations, and degree of mycorrhizal infection. Basin wildrye was found to be tolerant of high As concentrations allowing for vigorous plant growth at application levels of 3 or 15 mg As kg(-1). Arsenic was sequestered in the roots, with 30 to 50 times more As in the roots than shoots under low P conditions. Mycorrhizal infection did not confer As tolerance in basin wildrye nor did mycorrhizal fungi influence biomass production. Phosphorus concentrations of 15 mg kg(-1) effectively inhibited As accumulation in basin wildrye. Basin wildrye has the potential to be used for stabilization of As-rich soils while minimizing exposure to grazing animals following reclamation.     

Plant availability of zinc and copper in soil after contamination with brass foundry filter dust: effect of four years of aging

We investigated the effect of 4 yr of aging of a noncalcareous soil contaminated with filter dust from a brass foundry (80% w/w ZnO, 15% w/w Cu0.6Zn0.4) on the chemical extractability of Zn and Cu and their uptake by barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), pea (Pisum sativum L.), and sunflower (Helianthus annus L.). Pot experiments were conducted with the freshly contaminated soil (2250 mg kg-1 Zn; 503 mg kg-1 Cu), with the contaminated soil aged for 4 yr in the field (1811 mg kg-1 Zn; 385 mg kg-1 Cu), and with the uncontaminated control soil (136 mg kg-1 Zn; 32 mg kg-1 Cu). In comparison with the uncontaminated soil, the growth of barley and pea was clearly reduced in both contaminated soils, while toxicity symptoms did not systematically vary from the freshly contaminated to the 4 yr aged soil. The sunflower did not grow in the contaminated soils. The slow oxidative dissolution of the brass platelets led to an increase in the solubility and the plant uptake of Cu from the freshly contaminated to the 4 yr aged soil. In an earlier study, we found that the fine-grained ZnO dissolved in the field soil within 9 mo and that about half of the released Zn was incorporated into a layered double hydroxide phase and about half was adsorbed to the soil matrix. These changes in Zn speciation did not lead to a reduction of the Zn contents in the shoots and roots of barley and pea grown in the aged soil as compared with the freshly contaminated soil.     

Cadmium accumulation and tolerance of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) seedlings for phytoextraction applications

Mahogany, a high biomass fast-growing tropical tree, has recently garnered considerable interest for potential use in heavy metal phytoremediation. This study performed hydroponic experiments with Cd concentration gradients at concentrations of 0, 7.5, 15, and 30 mg L(-1) to identify Cd accumulation and tolerance of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) seedlings as well as their potential for phytoextraction. Experimental results indicate that Cd inhibited mahogany seedling growth at the highest Cd exposure concentration (30 mg L(-1)). Nevertheless, this woody species demonstrated great potential for phytoextraction at Cd concentrations of 7.5 and 15 mg L(-1). The roots, twigs, and leaves had extremely large bioaccumulation factors at 10.3-65.1, indicating that the plant extracted large amounts of Cd from hydroponic solutions. Mahogany seedlings accumulated up to 154 mg kg(-1) Cd in twigs at a Cd concentration of 15 mg L(-1). Although Cd concentrations in leaves were <100 mg kg(-1), these concentrations markedly exceed the normal ranges for other plants. Due to the high biomass production and Cd uptake capacity of mahogany shoots, this plant is a potential candidate for remediating Cd-contaminated sites in tropical regions.     

Soil-to-root transfer and translocation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by vegetables grown on industrial contaminated soils

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are possible contaminants in some former industrial sites, representing a potential risk to human health if these sites are converted to residential areas. This work was conducted to determine whether PAHs present in contaminated soils are transferred to edible parts of selected vegetables. Soils were sampled from a former gasworks and a private garden, exhibiting a range of PAH concentrations (4 to 53 to 172 to 1263 and 2526 mg PAHs kg-1 of dry soil), and pot experiments were conducted in a greenhouse with lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. Reine de Mai), potato (Solanum tuberosum L. var. Belle de Fontenay), and carrot (Daucus carota L. var. Nantaise). At harvest, above- and below ground biomass were determined and the PAH concentrations in soil were measured. In parallel, plates were placed in the greenhouse to estimate the average PAH-dust deposition. Results showed that the presence of PAHs in soils had no detrimental effect on plant growth. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were detected in all plants grown in contaminated soils. However, their concentration was low compared with the initial soil concentration, and the bioconcentration factors were low (i.e., ranging from 13.4 x 10(-4) in potato and carrot pulp to 2 x 10(-2) in potato and carrot leaves). Except in peeled potatoes, the PAH concentration in vegetables increased with the PAH concentration in soils. The PAH distribution profiles in plant tissues and in soils suggested that root uptake was the main pathway for high molecular weight PAHs. On the opposite, lower molecular weight PAHs were probably taken up from the atmosphere through the leaves as well as by roots.     

Fate and efficacy of polyacrylamide applied in furrow irrigation: full-advance and continuous treatments

Polyacrylamide (PAM) is applied to 400000 irrigated hectares annually in the USA to control irrigation-induced erosion, yet the fate of dissolved PAM applied in irrigation water is not well documented. We determined the fate of PAM added to furrow streams under two treatments: Initial-10, 10 mg L(-1) PAM product applied only during the initial hours of the irrigation, and Cont-1, 1.0 mg L(-1) PAM product applied continuously during the entire irrigation. The study measured PAM concentrations in 167-m-long PAM-treated furrow streams and along a 530-m tail ditch that received this runoff. Soil was Portneuf silt loam (coarse-silty, mixed, superactive, mesic Durinodic Xeric Haplocalcid) with 1.5% slope. Samples were taken at three times during the irrigations, both during and after PAM application. Polyacrylamide was adsorbed to soil and removed from solution as the streams traversed the soil-lined channels. The removal rate increased with stream sediment concentration. Stream sediment concentrations were higher when PAM concentrations were <2 mg L(-1) a.i., for early irrigations, and when untreated tributary flows combined with the stream. In these cases, PAM concentration decreased to undetectable levels over the flow lengths used in this study. When inflows contained >6 mg L(-1) PAM a.i., stream sediment concentrations were minimal and PAM concentrations did not change down the furrow, though they decreased to undetectable levels within 0.5 h after application ceased. One percent of applied PAM was lost in tail-ditch runoff. This loss could have been eliminated by treating only the furrow advance or not treating the last two irrigations.     

Apatite and phillipsite as sequestering agents for metals and radionuclides

Laboratory and greenhouse studies were conducted to quantify apatite and phillipsite (zeolite) sequestration of selected metal contaminants. The laboratory batch study measured the sorption of aqueous Co2+, Ba2+, Pb2+, Eu3+, and UO2(2+). Apatite sorbed more Co2+, Pb2+, Eu3+, and UO2(2+) from the spike solution than phillipsite, resulting in distribution coefficients (Kd values) of >200,000 L kg(-1). Phillipsite was more effective than apatite at sorbing aqueous Ba2+. Results from the laboratory study were used to design the greenhouse study that used a soil affected by a Zn-Pb smelter from Pribram, Czech Republic. Two application rates (25 and 50 g kg(-1)) of phillipsite and apatite and two plant species, maize (Zea mays L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.), were evaluated in this study. There was little (maize) to no (oat) plant growth in the unamended contaminated soil. Apatite and, to a slightly lesser extent, phillipsite additions significantly enhanced plant growth and reduced Cd, Pb, and Zn concentrations in all analyzed tissues (grain, leaves, and roots). The sequestering agents also affected some essential elements (Ca, Fe, and Mg). Phillipsite reduced Fe and apatite reduced P and Fe concentrations in oat tissues; however, the level of these elements in oat leaves and grains remained sufficient. Sequential extractions of the soil indicated that the Cd, Pb, and Zn were much more strongly sorbed onto the amended soil, making the contaminants less phytoavailable.     

Sulfamethazine uptake by plants from manure-amended soil

Animal manure is applied to agricultural land as a means to provide crop nutrients. However, animal manure often contains antibiotics as a result of extensive therapeutic and subtherapeutic use in livestock production. The objective of this study was to evaluate plant uptake of a sulfonamide-class antibiotic, sulfamethazine, in corn (Zea mays L.), lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), and potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) grown in a manure-amended soil. The treatments were 0, 50, and 100 microg sulfamethazine mL(-1) manure applied at a rate of 56 000 L ha(-1). Results from the 45-d greenhouse experiment showed that sulfamethazine was taken up by all three crops, with concentrations in plant tissue ranging from 0.1 to 1.2 mg kg(-1) dry weight. Sulfamethazine concentrations in plant tissue increased with corresponding increase of sulfamethazine in manure. Highest plant tissue concentrations were found in corn and lettuce, followed by potato. Total accumulation of sulfamethazine in plant tissue after 45 d of growth was less than 0.1% of the amount applied to soil in manure. These results raise potential human health concerns of consuming low levels of antibiotics from produce grown on manure-amended soils.     

Effects of plants on the removal of hexavalent chromium in wetland sediments

The effect of two wetland plants, Typha latifolia L. (cattail) and Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud (common reed), on the fate of Cr(VI) in wetland sediments was investigated using greenhouse bench-scale microcosm experiments. The removal of Cr(VI) was monitored based on the vertical profiles of aqueous Cr(VI) in the sediments. The Cr(VI) removal rates were estimated taking into account plant transpiration, which was found to significantly concentrate dissolved species in the sediments. After correcting for evapotranspiration, the actual Cr(VI) removal rates were significantly higher than would be inferred from uncorrected profiles. On average, the Cr(VI) removal rates were 0.005 to 0.017 mg L(-1) d(-1), 0.0003 to 0.08 mg L(-1) d(-1), and 0.004 to 0.13 mg L(-1) d(-1) for the control, T. latifolia, and P. australis microcosms, respectively. The fate of the removed Cr(VI) was examined by determining the quantity and chemical speciation of the Cr in the sediment and plant materials. Chromium(III) was the dominant form of Cr in both the sediment and plants, and precipitation of Cr(III) in the sediment was the major pathway responsible for the disappearance of aqueous Cr(VI) from the pore water. Incubation results showed that abiotic reduction was the primary mechanism underlying Cr(VI) removal in the microcosm sediments. Organic compounds produced by plants, including root exudates and mineralization products of dead roots, are thought to be the factor that is either directly or indirectly responsible for the gap between Cr(VI) removal efficiencies in the sediments of the vegetated and unvegetated microcosms.     

The role of nitrilotriacetate in copper uptake by tobacco

In growth chamber experiments we studied the effect of nitrilotriacetate (NTA) on Cu uptake by tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.). Plants were exposed for 6 d to 126 microM Cu and 500 microM NTA in nutrient solutions without and with 10 g L(-1) montmorillonite. Approximately seven times less Cu was dissolved in the montmorillonite solutions than in the nutrient solutions alone. In the absence of NTA, montmorillonite effectively competed with plant roots for Cu, although Cu remained bound to the roots. Nitrilotriacetate increased Cu uptake and translocation into shoots of tobacco by a factor of 3.5 from the nutrient solution and by a factor of 26 from the montmorillonite nutrient solution. Neither growth reduction nor any other visible sign of Cu toxicity was found in the presence of NTA with Cu concentrations of 190 mg kg(-1) in the shoots. In the absence of NTA, high Cu concentrations in root samples led to a brownish discoloration of the roots.     

Preceding crop affects grain cadmium and zinc of wheat grown in saline soils of central Iran

Enhanced Cd concentrations in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain produced on saline soils of central Iran have been recently reported. Because wheat bread is a major dietary component for the Iranian people, practical approaches to decrease Cd concentration in wheat grain were investigated. This study investigated the influence of sunflower-wheat vs. cotton-wheat rotations on extractable Cd and on Cd uptake by wheat in these salt-affected soils. Two fields with different levels of Cd contamination (1.5 and 3.2 mg total Cd kg(-1) dry soil) were cropped with different rotations (cotton-wheat and sunflower-wheat) in Qom province, central Iran. Seeds of cotton (Gossypium L.) or sunflower (Helianthus annuus L. cv. Record) were planted in plots. After harvesting of the plants and removal of crop residues, wheat (cv. Rushan) was seeded in all plots. For both studied soils, the concentrations of Cd extracted by 0.04 M EDTA and 1 M CaCl(2) were significantly (P < or = 0.05) greater after cotton than after sunflower. Accordingly, the total amount of Cd in sunflower shoot was significantly (P < or = 0.05) greater than in the cotton shoot. Shoot Cd content in wheat plants grown after cotton and sunflower were significantly different; wheat shoots after cotton accumulated more Cd (two to four times) than after sunflower. Wheat grain Cd concentration after sunflower was much lower (more than seven times) than after cotton. The results of this study showed that sunflower in rotation with wheat in salt-affected soils of central Iran significantly reduced the risk of Cd transfer to wheat grain.     

Zinc accumulation in plant species indigenous to a Portuguese polluted site: relation with soil contamination

The levels of zinc accumulated by roots, stems, and leaves of two plant species, Rubus ulmifolius and Phragmites australis, indigenous to the banks of a stream in a Portuguese contaminated site were investigated in field conditions. R. ulmifolius, a plant for which studies on phytoremediation potential are scarce, dominated on the right side of the stream, while P. australis proliferated on the other bank. Heterogeneous Zn concentrations were found along the banks of the stream. Zn accumulation in both species occurred mainly in the roots, with poor translocation to the aboveground sections. R. ulmifolius presented Zn levels in the roots ranging from 142 to 563 mg kg(-1), in the stems from 35 to 110 mg kg(-1), and in the leaves from 45 to 91 mg kg(-1), vs. average soil total Zn concentrations varying from 526 to 957 mg kg(-1). P. australis showed Zn concentrations in the roots from 39 to 130 mg kg(-1), in the stems from 31 to 63 mg kg(-1), and in the leaves from 37 to 83 mg kg(-1), for the lower average soil total Zn levels of 138 to 452 mg kg(-1) found on the banks where they proliferated. Positive correlations were found between the soil total, available and extractable Zn fractions, and metal accumulation in the roots and leaves of R. ulmifolius and in the roots and stems of P. australis. The use of R. ulmifolius and P. australis for phytoextraction purposes does not appear as an effective method of metal removing, but these native metal tolerant plant species may be used to reduce the effects of soil contamination, avoiding further Zn transfer to other environmental compartments.     

Particulates, not plants, dominate nitrogen processing in a septage-treating aerated pond system

In pond and wetland systems for wastewater treatment, plants are often thought to enhance the removal of ammonium and nitrogen through the activities of root-associated bacteria. In this study, we examined the role of plant roots in an aerated pond system with floating plants designed to treat high-strength septage wastewater. We performed both laboratory and full-scale experiments to test the effect of different plant root to septage ratios on nitrification and denitrification, and measured the abundances of nitrifying bacteria associated with roots and septage particulates. Root-associated nitrifying bacteria did not play a significant role in ammonium and total nitrogen removal. Investigations of nitrifier populations showed that only 10% were associated with water hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms] roots (at standard facility plant densities equivalent to 2.2 wet g roots L(-1) septage); instead, nitrifiers were found almost entirely (90%) associated with suspended septage particulates. The role of root-associated nitrifiers in nitrification was examined in laboratory batch experiments where high plant root concentrations (7.4 wet g L(-1), representing a 38% net increase in total nitrifier populations over plant-free controls) yielded a corresponding increase (55%) in the non-substrate-limited nitrification rate (V(max)). However, within the full-scale septage-treating pond system, nitrification and denitrification rates remained unchanged when plant root concentrations were increased to 7.1 g roots L(-1) (achieved by increasing the surface area available for plants while maintaining the same tank volume). Under normal facility operating conditions, nitrification was limited by ammonium concentration, not nitrifier availability. Maximizing plant root concentrations was found to be an inefficient mechanism for increasing nitrification in organic particulate-rich wastewaters such as septage.     

Cupric ion activity in peat soil as a toxicity indicator for maize

Copper phytotoxicity in soils is difficult to assess because Cu accumulates at and damages roots, and is not readily transferred to shoots. Soil chemical properties strongly influence Cu speciation, so that total soil Cu alone is not a broadly useful indicator of potential toxicity to plants. The present study measured free Cu2+ activity in Cu-enriched peat soils using the ion selective electrode. The soil Cu2+ activity was related to the severity of phytotoxicity as measured by several indicators in a maize (Zea mays L.) bioassay, including leaf chlorosis, root stunting, and reduced shoot growth and Fe concentration. A soil Cu2+ activity of 10(-7.0) to 10(-7.5), corresponding to total Cu of about 275 mg/kg in the peat soil, caused phytotoxicity in maize seedlings. It is proposed that Cu2+ activity is more directly related to phytotoxic effects than other soil tests, such as extractions with strong acids or chelating agents, because it is the free Cu2+ in soil solution that has the most direct toxic effects on roots. There was very limited uptake of Cu into maize shoots, and even when Cu2+ activity and total soil Cu were raised into the extreme toxicity range of 10(-5) and 4,000 mg/ kg, respectively, shoot Cu remained less than 35 mg/kg. These results indicate the inadequacy of the USEPA risk assessment of potential for Cu toxicity to crops amended with sewage sludge, which assumed a no-effect level of maize shoot Cu of 40 mg/kg.     

Impact of transgenic Bt maize residues on the mycotoxigenic plant pathogen Fusarium graminearum and the biocontrol agent Trichoderma atroviride

Transformation of maize with genes encoding for insecticidal crystal (Cry) proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) could have an impact on the saprophytic survival of plant pathogens and their antagonists on crop residues. We assessed potential effects on the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON)-producing wheat and maize pathogen Fusarium graminearum and on the biocontrol agent Trichoderma atroviride. Purified Cry1Ab protein caused no growth inhibition of these fungi on agar plates. Cry1Ab concentrations above levels common in Bt maize tissue stimulated the growth of F. graminearum. The fungi were also grown on gamma-radiation-sterilized leaf tissue of four Bt maize hybrids and their non transgenic isolines collected at maize maturity on a field trial in 2002 and 2003. Both fungi degraded the Cry1Ab protein in Bt maize tissue. Fungal biomass quantification with microsatellite-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays revealed differential fungal growth on leaf tissue of different maize varieties but no consistent difference between corresponding Bt and non-Bt hybrids. Generally, year of maize tissue collection had a greater impact on biomass production than cultivar or Bt transformation. The mycotoxin DON levels observed in maize tissue experiments corresponded with patterns in F. graminearum biomass, indicating that Bt transformation has no impact on DON production. In addition to bioassays, maize leaf tissue was analyzed with a mass spectrometer-based electronic nose, generating fingerprints of volatile organic compounds. Chemical fingerprints of corresponding Bt and non-Bt leaf tissues differed only for those hybrid pairs that caused differential fungal biomass production in the bioassays. Our results suggest that Cry1Ab protein in maize residues has no direct effect on F. graminearum and T. atroviride but some corresponding Bt/non-Bt maize hybrids differ more in composition than Cry protein content alone, which can affect the saprophytic growth of fungi on crop residues.     

Effect of manure application timing, crop, and soil type on nitrate leaching

Timing of manure application affects N leaching. This 3-yr study quantified N losses from liquid manure application on two soils, a Muskellunge clay loam and a Stafford loamy sand, as affected by cropping system and timing of application. Dairy manure was applied at an annual rate of 93 800 L ha(-1) on replicated drained plots under continuous maize (Zea mays L.) in early fall, late fall, early spring, and as a split application in early and late spring. Variable rates of supplemental sidedress N fertilizer were applied as needed. Manure was applied on orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) in split applications in early fall and late spring, and early and late spring, with supplemental N fertilizer topdressed as NH4NO3 in early spring at 75 kg N ha(-1). Drain water was sampled at least weekly when lines were flowing. Three-year FWM (flow-weighted mean) NO3-N concentrations on loamy sand soil averaged 2.5 times higher (12.7 mg L(-1)) than those on clay loam plots (5.2 mg L(-1)), and those for fall applications on maize-cropped land averaged >10 mg L(-1) on the clay loam and >20 mg L(-1) on the loamy sand. Nitrate-N concentrations among application seasons followed the pattern early fall > late fall > early spring = early + late spring. For grass, average NO3-N concentrations from manure application remained well below 10 mg L(-1). Fall manure applications on maize show high NO3-N leaching risks, especially on sandy soils, and manure applications on grass pose minimal leaching concern.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon storage in a typical Cerrado of the Brazilian savanna

There may be important biological sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to the global environment, particularly of naphthalene, phenanthrene, and perylene, that originate in the tropics. We (i) studied the distribution of PAHs among different compartments of a typical Cerrado to locate their sources and (ii) quantified the PAH storage of this ecosystem. The sum of 20 PAH (sigma20PAHs) concentrations ranged from 25 to 666 microg kg(-1) in plant tissue, 7.4 to 32 microg kg(-1) in litterfall, 206 to 287 microg kg(-1) in organic soil, and 10 to 79 microg kg(-1) in mineral soil. Among the living biomass compartments, the bark had the highest mean PAH concentrations and coarse roots the lowest, indicating that PAHs in the plants originated mainly from aboveground sources. Naphthalene and phenanthrene were the most abundant individual PAHs, together contributing 33 to 96% to the sigma20PAHs concentrations. The total storage of the X20PAHs in Cerrado was 7.5 mg m(-2) to a 0.15-m soil depth and 49 mg m(-2) to a 2-m soil depth. If extrapolated to the entire Brazilian Cerrado region, roughly estimated storages of naphthalene and phenanthrene correspond to 7300 and 400 yr of the published annual emissions in the United Kingdom, respectively. The storage of benzo[a]pyrene, a typical marker for fossil fuel combustion, in the Cerrado only corresponds to 0.19 yr of UK emissions. These results indicate that the Brazilian savanna comprises a huge reservoir of naphthalene and phenanthrene originating most likely from the aboveground parts of the vegetation or associated organisms. Thus, the Cerrado might be a globally important source of these PAHs.     

Arsenic accumulation in the hyperaccumulator Chinese brake and its utilization potential for phytoremediation

The unique property of arsenic hyperaccumulation by the newly discovered Chinese brake (Pteris vittata L.) fern is of great significance in the phytoremediation of arsenic-contaminated soils. The objectives of this study were to (i) examine arsenic accumulation characterized by its distribution pattern in Chinese brake, and (ii) assess the phytoextraction potential of the plant. Young ferns with five or six fronds were transferred to an arsenic-contaminated soil containing 98 mg As kg-1 and grown for 20 wk in a greenhouse. At harvest, the Chinese brake produced a total dry biomass of 18 g plant-1. Arsenic concentration in the fronds was 6000 mg kg-1 dry mass after 8 wk of transplanting, and it increased to 7230 mg kg-1 after 20 wk with a bioconcentration factor (ratio of plant arsenic concentration to water-soluble arsenic in soil) of 1450 and a translocation factor (ratio of arsenic concentration in shoot to that in root) of 24. The arsenic concentrations increased as the fronds aged, with the old fronds accumulating as much as 13,800 mg As kg-1. Most (approximately 90%) of the arsenic taken up by the Chinese brake was transported to the fronds, with the lowest arsenic concentrations in roots. About 26% of the initial soil arsenic was removed by the plant after 20 wk of transplanting. Our data suggest that the arsenic hyperaccumulating property of the Chinese brake could be exploited on a large scale to remediate arsenic contaminated soils.     

Cadmium availability from granulated and bulk-blended phosphate-potassium fertilizers

Recent field experiments have shown that high chloride (Cl) in irrigation waters can increase soil cadmium (Cd) uptake by crops because of the formation of soluble ion-pair complexes of Cd with Cl in soil solution. The present study was aimed at testing a hypothesis that KCl in granulated PK fertilizers may enhance Cd uptake by crops from Cd-containing P fertilizers because of close contact between Cd and Cl in the same granules. Less effect would be expected if the same granular PK fertilizers were bulk-blended because of separation of Cd and Cl in different granules. A single superphosphate (SSP) containing 32 mg Cd kg(-1) was granulated by the compaction process with KCl at a P to K ratio = 1:1. Granular KCl was also bulk-blended with granular SSP or Cd-free monocalcium phosphate (MCP) at the same P to K ratio. An acid Ultisol (pH 5.2) was treated with PK fertilizers at 400 mg kg(-1) each for P and K. Upland rice (Oryza sativa L.) and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] were grown to maturity, and signalgrass (Brachiaria decumbens Stapf.) was cut four times during the study. The results showed that the agronomic effectiveness in increasing crop yield was the same with SSP and MCP whether granulated or bulk-blended with KCl. Concentrations of Cd in plant tissue samples of all crops were much lower for MCP than for SSP. In all the plant tissue samples, except grain samples of upland rice, Cd concentrations obtained with granulated (SSP + KCl) were significantly higher than that with bulk-blended (SSP) + (KCl).     

Integrated BIosphere Simulator (IBIS) yield and nitrate loss predictions for Wisconsin maize receiving varied amounts of nitrogen fertilizer

Agriculture in the U.S. Midwest faces the formidable challenge of improving crop productivity while simultaneously mitigating the environmental consequences of intense management. This study examined the simultaneous response of nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) leaching losses and maize (Zea mays L.) yield to varied fertilizer N management using field observations and the Integrated BIosphere Simulator (IBIS) model. The model was validated against six years of field observations in chisel-plowed maize plots receiving an optimal (180 kg N ha(-1)) fertilizer N application and in N-unfertilized plots on a silt loam soil near Arlington, Wisconsin. Predicted values of grain yield, harvest index, plant N uptake, residue C to N ratio, leaf area index (LAI), grain N, and drainage were within 20% of observations. However, simulated NO3-N leaching losses, NO3-N concentrations, and net N mineralization exhibited less interannual variability than observations, and had higher levels of error (20-65%). Potential effects of 30% higher (234 kg N ha(-1)) and 30% lower (126 kg N ha(-1)) fertilizer N use (from optimal) on NO3-N leaching loss and maize yield were simulated. A 30% increase in fertilizer N use increased annual NO3-N leaching by 56%, while yield increased by only 1%. The NO3-N concentration in the leachate solution at 1.4 m below the soil surface was 30.7 mg L(-1). When fertilizer N use was reduced by 30% (from optimal), annual NO3-N leaching losses declined by 42% after seven years, and annual average yield only decreased by 8%. However, NO3-N concentration in the leachate solution remained above 10 mg L(-1) (11.3 mg L(-1)). Clearly, nonlinear relationships existed between changes in fertilizer use and NO3-N leaching losses over time. Simulated changes in NO3-N leaching were greater in magnitude than fertilizer N use changes.     

Polyphenol oxidase activity in subcellular fractions of tall fescue contaminated by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Understanding enzyme responses to contamination with persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is a key step in the elucidation of POP metabolic mechanisms in plants. However, there is little information available on enzyme activity in subcellular fractions of POP-contaminated plants. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the activities of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) in cell fractions of plants under contamination stress from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using a greenhouse batch technique. Three parameters, E(cell), E(cell-n), and P(cell), denoting the amount of PPO activity, cell fraction content-normalized PPO activity, and proportion of PPO activity in each cell fraction, respectively, were used in this study. Contamination with phenanthrene, as a representative PAH, at a relatively high level (>0.23 mg L?1) in culture solution generally stimulated PPO activity in tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) roots and shoots and their cellular fractions. The amount and distribution proportion of PPO activity in each cell fraction of phenanthrene-contaminated roots and shoots were (in descending order): cell solution > > cell wall > cell organelles. Cell solution was the dominant storage domain of PPO activity and contributed 84.0 and 82.8% of PPO activity in roots and shoots, respectively. The cell wall had the highest density of PPO activity in roots and shoots, based on the highest cell fraction content normalized PPO activity in this cell fraction. Our results provide new information on enzyme responses in plant intracellular fractions to xenobiotic POPs and fundamental information on within-plant POP metabolic mechanisms.