The validation analysis of the INSHORE system��a precise and efficient coastal survey system

Government and environmental entities are becoming increasingly concerned with qualifying and quantifying the erosion effects that are observed in sandy shores. Correspondingly, survey methodologies that gather data for such erosion studies are increasingly being demanded. The responsible entities are continually broadening their areas of interest, are concerned in the establishment of regular monitoring programmes and are demanding high accuracy from the geo-spatial data that is collected. The budget available for such monitoring activities, however, does not parallel the trend in the increasing demand for quality specifications. Survey methodologies need improvement to meet these requirements. We have developed a new land-based survey system--the INSHORE system--that is ideal for low cost, highly efficient and highly precise coastal surveys. The INSHORE system uses hi-tech hardware that is based on high-grade global positioning system (GPS) receivers and a laser distance sensor combined with advanced software algorithms. This system enables the determination of the ground coordinates of the surveyed areas with a precision of 1 to 2 cm, without having a sensor in contact with the ground surface. The absence of physical contact with the ground makes this system suitable for high-efficiency surveys. The accuracy of the positioning, which is based on advanced differential GPS processing, is enhanced by considering the estimated attitude of the GPS receiver holding structure and eliminates undesirable offsets. This paper describes the INSHORE survey system and presents the results of validation tests that were performed in a sandy shore environment.     

NDVI indicated characteristics of vegetation cover change in China��s metropolises over the last three decades

How urban vegetation was influenced by three decades of intensive urbanization in China is of great interest but rarely studied. In this paper, we used satellite derived Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and socioeconomic data to evaluate effects of urbanization on vegetation cover in China??s 117 metropolises over the last three decades. Our results suggest that current urbanization has caused deterioration of urban vegetation across most cities in China, particularly in East China. At the national scale, average urban area NDVI (NDVI_u) significantly decreased during the last three decades (P?<?0.01), and two distinct periods with different trends can be identified, 1982?C1990 and 1990?C2006. NDVI_u did not show statistically significant trend before 1990 but decrease remarkably after 1990 (P?<?0.01). Different regions also showed difference in the timing of NDVI_u turning point. The year when NDVI_u started to decline significantly for Central China and East China was 1987 and 1990, respectively, while NDVI_u in West China remained relatively constant until 1998. NDVI_u changes in the Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta, two regions which has been undergoing the most rapid urbanization in China, also show different characteristics. The Pearl River Delta experienced a rapid decline in NDVI_u from the early 1980s to the mid-1990s; while in the Yangtze River Delta, NDVI_u did not decline significantly until the early 1990s. Such different patterns of NDVI_u changes are closely linked with policy-oriented difference in urbanization dynamics of these regions, which highlights the importance of implementing a sustainable urban development policy.     

Determination of EC 50 toxicity data of selected heavy metals toward Heterocypris incongruens and their comparison to ��direct-contact�� and microbiotests

The sensitivity of Heterocypris incongruens to selected heavy metal ions is discussed. Although the Ostracodtoxkit ${\textregistered}$ has been present on the market for a few years, data on its selectivity and sensitivity to toxicants is scarce; such data is indispensable when interpreting the results of sediment toxicity. The LC₅₀ and EC₅₀ results with the Ostracodtoxkit ${\textregistered}$ are compared with those obtained with other commercially available ??direct-contact?? tests (utilizing Hyalella azteca and Chironomus riparius) and microbiotests for assessing the toxicity of aqueous samples (Vibrio fischeri, Daphnia magna, and Selenastrum capricornatum). The sensitivity of H. incongruens to metal ions (Cd^2?+?>?>Hg^2?+?> Cu^2?+?>Cr^6?+?>Ni^2?+???Mn^7?+?>Zn^2?+?>Pb^2?+?>Li^1?+?> Fe^3?+?) was found to be similar to that of H. azteca and of C. riparius. The Ostracodtoxkit ${\textregistered}$ has shown itself to be an efficient and reliable element of test batteries for toxicity determination.     

Evaluation of environmental impacts of Integrated Industrial Estate��Pantnagar through application of air and water quality indices

Large-scale industrialization, population inflow, and rapid urbanization coupled with unfavorable meteorological conditions often induce significant degradation of urban environment. In order to assess the extent of environmental impacts due to establishment of the Integrated Industrial Estate??Pantnagar (IIE-Pantnagar), ambient air and groundwater were monitored from June 2007 to May 2008. Collected baseline information was normalized and interpreted with the application of air (AQI) and water quality indices (WQI). Among the pre-identified air pollutants, suspended particulate matter was found to be the principal culprit to deteriorate ambient air quality, with a maximum annual concentration of 418.5 ??g/m³. Monthly average concentrations of respirable particulate matter (aerodynamic diameter < 10 ??m) also persist at a critical level with an annual maximum of 207.3 ??g/m³. A segmented linear function with maximum operator concept was used to compute AQI, and the developed index was found well suitable to demonstrate temporal variations of ambient air quality. The computed AQI value for the selected study region varied from moderate (97.0) to very poor pollution level (309.2) in respect to developed air quality standards. Furthermore, an integrated WQI was developed comprising 9 parameters, and among all the 10 pre-identified locations, the average groundwater quality was found acceptable in terms of Indian drinking water standards. The maximum WQI (70.6) was found at the Kichha Railway Station during summer months, revealing moderate pollution load. Industrial discharge from IIE-Pantnagar coupled with other industrial setup may hold responsible for such kind of degradation of water quality. In contrast, WQI computed at Rudrapur City demonstrate minimum (15.0?C22.1) pollution load. For 95% of the monitoring period, the computed WQI was found acceptable for all selected locations with few exceptions. The application of WQI to assess temporal variations in groundwater quality was therefore found satisfactory.     

Factors affecting the sustainability of solid waste management system—the case of Palestine

Understanding the predictors of sustainability in solid waste management (SWM) systems can significantly contribute to eliminate many waste management problems. In this paper, the sustainability elements of SWM systems of interest are (1) attitudes toward separation at the source, (2) behaviour regarding reuse and/or recycling and (3) willingness to pay for an improved service of SWM. The predictors affecting these three elements were studied in two Palestinian cities: Ramallah and Jericho. The data were collected via structured questionnaires and direct interviews with the respondents, and the analysis utilized a logistic regression model. The results showed that the place of residence and dwelling premises are the significant factors influencing attitudes toward separation at the source; the place of residence and age are the significant factors explaining behaviour regarding reuse and/or recycling; while the dwelling premises, gender, level of education and being received education on waste management are the significant factors affecting willingness to pay for an improved service of SWM.     

Simulations of groundwater-surface water interaction and particle movement due to the effect of weir construction in the sub-watershed of the river Labe in the town of Děčín

Steady- and transient-state simulations of groundwater flow and particle movement in the sub-watershed of the river Labe in Dě?ín town was carried out using Visual MODFLOW software. The simulations were performed for calibration and for the scenarios that the change in the water level of the river Labe was undergoing. Steady-state simulation was carried out for the sake of calibration of model outputs. For transient simulation, two different scenarios were considered in order to investigate the response of the aquifer system to the stresses applied on surface water of the river. The simulation results have shown that the surface water and groundwater interactions, and the subsequent particle movement were affected by the stresses applied on the surface water in the river Labe. The first scenario involved the rapid recharge of surface water to the aquifer in the vicinity of the river while particles still move towards the river at the places far away from the river. At the end of the second scenario, particles still tend to move towards the river slowly and finally tend to stay within the aquifer as equilibrium of hydraulic gradient is reached between the surface and groundwater levels. The time series graphs of hydraulic heads at all observation wells show that the groundwater level in the surrounding aquifer rises significantly as a result of recharges from the river. The local water balance of the study area was calculated and expressed as the rates of water entering and leaving the system. At the end of the second scenario, the difference between the rate of flow into and out of the model area was 0.73 m³ day^?1.     

Chemometric study on the trace metal accumulation in the sediments of the Cochin Estuary―Southwest coast of India

The distribution and accumulation of trace metals in the sediments of the Cochin estuary during the pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon periods were investigated. Sediment samples from 14 locations were collected and analysed for the metal contents (Mg, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb), organic carbon, total nitrogen, total sulphur and grain size. The data were processed using statistical tools like correlation, factor and cluster analysis. The study revealed an enrichment of Cd and Zn in the study area particularly at station 2, which is confirmed by enrichment factor, contamination factor and geoaccumulation index. The factor analysis revealed that the source of Cd and Zn may be same. The study indicated that the spatial variation for the metals like Mg, Cr, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb were predominant unlike Mn which shows a temporal variation. The strong association of trace metals with Fe and Mn hydroxides and oxides are prominent along the Cochin estuary. The anthropogenic inputs of industrial effluents mainly control the trace metals enrichment in the Cochin estuary.     

Physicochemical characteristics of paper industry effluents��a case study of South India Paper Mill (SIPM)

Pulp and paper mills generate varieties of pollutants depending upon type of the pulping process being used. This paper presents the characteristics of wastewater from South India Paper Mill, Karnataka, India which is using recycled waste paper as a raw material. The raw wastewater consists of 80?C90 mg L^???1 suspended solid and 1,010?C1,015 mg L^???1 dissolved solid. However, pH varied from 5.5?C6.8. The biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand ranged from 200?C210 and 1,120?C1,160 mg L^???1, respectively. Aerobic treatment of raw effluent attribute to significant reduction in suspended solid (range between 25 to 30 mg L^???1) and total dissolved solid (range between 360 to 390 mg L^???1). However, pH, temperature, and electrical conductivity were found superior after treatment. Copper, cadmium, iron, lead, nickel, and zinc were found in less quantity in raw effluent and were almost completely removed after treatment. The dendrogram of the effluent quality parameters clearly indicate that South India Paper Mill does not meet Minimal National Standard set by central Pollution Control Board to discharge in agricultural field.     

Assessment of enrichment factors and grain size influence on the metal distribution in riverbed sediments (Anll��ns River, NW Spain)

The metals distribution in the bed sediments of the Anllóns River was studied, with special emphasis on the evaluation of the metal distribution as a function of the granulometric fraction chosen for the analysis. Statistical significant differences between the distribution of K, Ca, Cr, Mn, As, Rb, Sr and Nb in the bulk (<2 mm) and fine fraction (<63 μm) were not found. Fe, Ni, Cu, Ga, Zr, Zn and Pb commonly appear in higher concentrations in the fine fraction, whereas Ti appears in higher concentrations in the bulk fraction. In general, it was observed that contamination phenomena tend to equalise the concentrations of both fractions, and this was mainly explained as the result of two processes. First, the formation of coatings over sands and, second, the formation of large aggregates (pseudo-sands) at sites located over basic rocks, whose chemical behaviour is closer to that of clays and could be responsible for significant adsorption processes. Normalisation techniques to evaluate contamination were applied by testing Nb, Sr, Rb or Ga as normaliser elements and by using crustal or shale average values for background concentrations. The most satisfactory result was obtained when using shale average values and Ga as the normaliser element. Arsenic was identified as the main contaminant of the basin, exceeding in all cases the low-effect reference values proposed by sediment quality guidelines and in two cases the medium-effect reference values. These sites were identified by multivariate techniques, which allow differentiating site 10 as affected by anthropogenic inputs related to past mining activities.     

Are we headed towards the defaunation of the last large Atlantic Forest remnants? Poaching activities in one of the largest remnants of the Tabuleiro forests in southeastern Brazil

Hunting is a problem to animal conservation in different parts of the world and it has caused the local extinction of several species. The aim of this study was to characterize the poaching activities in one of the main tabuleiro forest remnants of Brazil, the Linhares-Sooretama Block (LSB). Poaching records from 2010 to 2013 were gathered from the agencies responsible for monitoring and combating environmental crimes in the LSB. A total of 693 records (mean = 173 events/year) were collected involving direct (hunted animals, firearms, handmade firearms, traps, poachers, and various hunting supplies) and indirect (tree stands, baits, and poacher signs) evidences of poaching. No differences in the monthly cumulative number of records were found among years, but the distribution of records differed according to the type of evidence. A total of 40 animal seizure events were recorded involving a total of at least 15 taxa directly affected by poaching (reptiles = 2, birds = 6, mammals = 7) and 75 individuals seized (19 individuals/year). Five of the poached species are threatened. Lowland paca (Cuniculus paca) and armadillos were the most poached mammals in the region. Most of the poachers conduct such activities for fun (entertainment) and/or professionally (commercial hunting). The collected data show an approximately 32% increase in the number of poaching events in the region compared with the historical data available for LSB. It may have resulted from a gradual decrease in protection, both in terms of the number of agents deployed and the levels of effort of the teams, which began in 2009. The data demonstrate that poaching is a significant threat to the conservation of the LSB fauna, as it is in other Atlantic Forest remnants and in other regions of the world. Protection activities must be intensified to effectively combat the impacts of poaching in the LSB region, thereby contributing to the conservation of species in one of the few Atlantic Forest remnants whose original species composition still remains intact.     

On the effects of the dispersant Corexit 9500© during the degradation process of n-alkanes and PAHs in marine sediments

In many coastal countries, oil spill contingency plans include several alternatives for removal of the spilled oil from the ocean. Frequently, these plans include dispersants. Because this process applies chemical substances that may add toxicity to oil that already contains toxic compounds, it is, at times, a controversial method to fight oil pollution. Additionally, local conditions may result in particular complications. We investigated the possible effects of the dispersant Corexit 9500© under conditions similar to those of subtropical oceans. We used fuel oil #6+ diesel as the test mixture. Under certain conditions, at least part of the dispersed oil may reach the sediment, particularly if the dispersant is applied in coastal waters. Nine experimental units were used in this experiment. Similar conditions of water temperature, salinity, air fluxes into the experimental units, and hydrocarbon concentrations in sediments were used. Two treatments and one control, each one with three replicates, were carried out. We concentrated our investigation on sediment, although measurements of water were also taken. Our results suggest that once the oil has penetrated the sediment, no significant differences exist between oil that contains dispersant and oil without dispersant. Noticeable degradation of aliphatic hydrocarbons occurred mainly in the low molecular weight aliphatic hydrocarbons and not in the others. Apparently, degradation of aromatics was easier than that of alkanes. However, some differences were noticed for the degradation of PAHs in the sediment, suggesting a faster degradation under particular conditions in aerobic environments such as under this experiment.     

“Emission game”: some applications of the theory of games to the problem of CO2 emission

If there are no doubts that we must reduce the total emission of carbon dioxide, then the problem of how much different countries should be allowed to contribute to this amount remains a serious one. We suggest this problem to be considered as a non-antagonistic game (in Germeier's sense). A game of this kind is called an “emission game”. Suppose that there are n independent actors (countries or regions), each of them releasing a certain amount of CO₂ per year (in carbon units) into the atmosphere, and that the emission would be reduced by each actor. Each actor has his own aim: to minimise the loss in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) caused by the reduction of emissions. On the other hand, taking into account that it is impossible to estimate more or less precisely the impact of the climate change on GDP for each country today, a common strategy will be to reduce the climate change. Since one of the main leading factors in global warming is the greenhouse effect, then the common aim will be to reduce the sum of emissions. This is a typical conflict situation. How to resolve it? We can weigh the “egoistic” and “altruistic” criteria for each actor introducing the so-called “coefficients of egoism”. This coefficient is very large, if the actor uses a very egoistic strategy, and conversely, if the actor is a “super-altruist”, then the corresponding coefficient is very small. Using these coefficients we get the general solution of the game in a form of some Pareto's equilibrium. The solution is stable and efficient.     

The long time scales of the climate–economy feedback and the climatic cost of growth

This paper is based on the perception that the inertia of climate and socio-economic systems are key parameters in the climate change issue. In a first part, it develops and implements a new approach based on a simple integrated model with a particular focus on an innovative transient impact and adaptation modeling. In a second part, a climate–economy feedback is defined and characterized. The following results were found. 1) It has a long characteristic time, which lies between 50 and 100 years depending on the hypotheses; this time scale is long when compared to the system's other time scales, and the feedback cannot act as a natural damping process of climate change. 2) Mitigation has to be anticipated since the feedback of an emission reduction on the economy can be significant only after a 20-year delay and is really efficient only after at least 50 years. 3) Even discounted, production changes due to an action on emissions are significant over more than one century. 4) The methodology of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which neglects the feedback from impacts to emissions, is acceptable up to 2100, whatever is the level of impacts. This analysis allows also to define a climatic cost of growth as the additional climate change damages due to the additional emissions linked to economic growth.

Evaluation of the Impact of Acid Mine Drainage on the Chemistry and the Macrobenthos in the Carolina Stream (San Luis – Argentina)

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of acid mine drainage on the chemistry and the macrobenthos of the Carolina stream (San Luis – Argentina). Samples were obtained in the years 1997–1998 at two sites: site C₁, located 200 m upstream of the drainage, and site C₂, located 800 m downstream. The system buffer capacity was evaluated in the non – contaminated site by means of the buffer index calculation. The physico – chemical changes observed as a consequence of the contribution of acid mine drainage (AMD) were: a decreasing of pH and an increase in the ionic concentration, especially sulfate and Fe coming from the oxidation produced by chemiolithotrophic bacteria. The values obtained indicated a low buffer capacity and a high intrinsic vulnerability of the system to resist the impact originated by the AMD, producing a remarkable decreasing of pH of the receiving stream. These changes caused modifications in the original benthic community that was replaced by organisms more tolerant to the acid stress. A reduction in the abundance and in the taxonomic richness of the benthic macroinvertebrates was observed when compared with the reference station. An increase in the proportion of Chironomidae and of Acari and a decrease in the proportion of the remaining taxa were observed. The most sensitive groups were Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera and Mollusca. The community was mostly affected by the following variables: pH, conductivity, sulfate and dissolved total Fe.     

Numerical Modeling of Flow Fields and Dispersion of Passive Pollutants in the Vicinity of the Temelín Nuclear Power Plant

This study deals with numerical simulation of flow fields and dispersion of model passive admixtures in the planetary boundary layer in a 10 × 10 km square area, centered on the Czech Republic’s Temelín Nuclear Power Plant. Numerical calculations of three-dimensional flow fields with eight basic wind directions given for the inlet boundary of the computational domain are performed using the FLUENT CFD code with the standard k – ε turbulence model. The resultant modeling of the flow fields provides information as to probable local directions and velocities of flow vectors on a horizontal scale of 100 m, which are consistent with the data given for the boundaries of the calculation area in the framework of a scale of 10 km. The modeled flow fields generate the input data for related Lagrangian simulation of the ground concentration and deposition fields of passive particles assumedly emitted at the site of the Temelín plant. Simulated plumes describe eight cases of potential ground-level distribution of model passive admixtures in the area.     

Design and assembly of an experimental laboratory for the study of atmosphere–plant interactions in the system of fumigation chambers

A 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD(5)) test has been used as the standard measurement of organic pollution in rivers worldwide. However, it may be argued that BOD is not a sufficient indicator of organic pollution when nitrogenous biochemical oxygen demand (NBOD) is present in water samples. In this study, BOD, NBOD, and carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD) of treated sewage effluent (TSE) were measured near at the discharge outlet of 3 sewage treatment plants (STPs) in Sakai, Itachi, and Kashio rivers in Central Japan. Additional measurements were conducted at one point upstream and two points downstream from the STP discharge points in the rivers. It was estimated that NBOD values in the TSE of Sakai River, Kashio River and Itachi River accounted for 54%, 69% and 18% of their BOD values, respectively. Respective NH4+ and NO2- concentrations were positively correlated with those of NBOD values in Sakai, Itachi, and Kashio rivers. The BOD loads from the TSE were estimated to be 2.2, 5.7, and 1.2 times higher than the CBOD loads in the Sakai, Itachi, and Kashio rivers, respectively. The variation of the portion of NBOD values of each TSE, as well as the ratios of CBOD to BOD loads, was attributed to the difference in each STP system. Consequently, the NH4+ and NO2- of TSE led to the increase of NBOD in the Sakai River basin.     

Modelling the Balance of Metals in the Amended Soil for the Case of ‘Atmosphere–Plant–Soil’ System

Changing the concepts of economic development and introducing new amendments can hardly decrease the accumulation in the soil of such pollutants as metals, remaining there for a long time. The predictive models for describing the balance of metals in the soil, which are based on the ‘atmosphere–plant–soil’ system and reflect the complicated physical–chemical nature of the metals’ migration, expressed by coefficients obtained in long-term observations in natural conditions, allow for evaluating long-term concentration of metals in the soil. The model BALANS evaluates self-purification of soil, taking into account the uptake of metals of aerogenic origin by the soil together with amendments, their physical–chemical migration and the type of microrelief determining its intensity as well as the absorbed biomass of plants and the removal of metals with crops. In this model, the half-period of metals’ washing out from the soil, found for the microrelief characteristic of low places, exceeds 200 years for Ni, Cr and Pb and makes 90 and 150 years for Zn and Cu, respectively.